Institute of Fundamental Technological Research

EACS 2022, structural control, structural health monitoring

In this paper, the authors propose, investigate, and discuss a concept of novel type of deployable helium-filled aerostat as a low-cost mean of transport. Internal construction of the aerostat is based on ultra-light tensegrity structure equipped with prestressed tensioned elements of controllable lengths. Such tensegrity structure allows for adaptive morphing of the aerostat understood as simultaneous controllable modifications of aerostat volume and shape during the flight. The controlled volume changes enable influencing buoyancy force and obtaining desired vertical motion during the ascending and descending process. In turn, external shape changes allow for lowering the aerodynamic drag and energy usage needed to uphold stable horizontal position or maintain the desired flight path. Moreover, such internal structure allows for convenient storage, transportation and deployment of the aerostat construction on the ground or in required point at the atmosphere. The article presents an analysis of the exemplary operational mission of the aerostat. The authors introduce the mechanical model capturing interaction of the internal tensegrity structure and aerostat envelope based on the finite-element method, as well as dynamic model allowing for simulation of the aerostat’s vertical and horizontal motion influenced by buoyancy and drag forces. Both these models are used to positively verify the feasibility of the proposed concept of deployable tensegrity-based aerostat with adaptive morphing and its efficiency in realization of the assumed flight mission.

tensegrity structure, internal construction, shape modification, helium-filled aerostat, vertical mobility, horizontal mobility

In this article, the authors propose and investigate a new concept of HAPS aerostat design in a modular form, which allows for sequential increasing or decreasing of the total volume, up to the desired size. In its initial form, the aerostat has relatively small dimensions but its central cylindrical part is multi-segmented and can be easily extended. The application of controllable construction couplings enables precise control of the aerostat expansion process and significantly improves its vertical mobility. The paper describes details of telescopic aerostat construction, presents a mathematical model of its vertical motion and investigates numerically two volume control strategies aimed at maximization of operation efficiency and minimization of operation cost. The results obtained reveal the main problems that have to be addressed and the factors that play a key role in design of such telescopic aerostats and control of their vertical mobility.

helium airship, control of vertical mobility, reduced energy consumption, optimum ascending and descending path

The procedure of numerical identification of thermophysical properties of concrete during its hardening is presented. Heat of cement hydration, thermal conductivity and specific heat are determined for purpose of modelling temperature evolution in massive concrete elements. The developed method is based on point temperature measurements in a cylindrical mould and the numerical solution of the inverse heat transfer problem by means of direct search optimization algorithm. The determined thermal characteristics of concrete are not constant and depend on the maturity of concrete. The procedure was verified on set of concrete mixes designed with Portland cement CEM I 42.5R and Portland-slag cement CEM II/B-S 32.5 N. Calcareous fly ash was also used for partial replacement of cement in the mixtures. The obtained results have been compared with experimentally measured temperature in concrete and a fair agreement has been found.

Scissors mechanisms are commonly used in safety engineering during the construction of temporary structures, owing to their inherent advantages of foldability, transformability, and reusability. We effectively utilized these scissors mechanism features to develop a lightweight, deployable emergency Mobile Bridge (MB) based on optimization, and control of the folding structure. Here, we discuss the problems of optimal reinforcement layout for the MB by formulating and solving three optimization problems, namely: (a) the load capacity maximization problem, (b) the weight minimization problem, and (c) coupling the load capacity maximization problem and the weight minimization problem. The potential benefits resulting from the application of reinforcement were evaluated using a combination of finite element analysis and an optimization algorithm based on the differential evolution method. The results demonstrate the significant positive influence of the additional reinforcing members. In particular, the limit load was increased by over 10 times, while the weight was decreased to approximately half. The proposed methodology enabled the development of a substantially improved version of the MB characterized by a higher load capacity and lower weight in comparison to the initial bridge design.

This paper investigates an application of a ball-screw inerter for mitigation of impact loadings. The problem of impact absorption is to provide a minimum reaction force that optimally decelerates and eventually stops an impacting object within the available absorber stroke. It significantly differs from vibration mitigation problems which are typical application of inerters. The paper demonstrates that the optimum absorption can be achieved by fully passive means. For known values of the object mass and inerter parameters, the obtained solution is independent of the impact velocity. The optimum passive absorption is achieved by employing a variable thread lead. As a result, two force components emerge, the typical inertance-related force and a damping-like term, and sum up to provide the optimum constant deceleration force. This result is relatively unique: conventional absorbers do not provide a constant force even with complex active control systems. Finally, an optimization problem is formulated to reduce the influence of process uncertainties (range of possible mass values, unknown friction). The results are verified and analyzed in a numerical example.

Recent progress in the field of sensors, actuators, and smart materials allows the construction of more and more efficient controllable pneumatic dampers for shock absorption. Typically, such devices apply online semi-active control techniques, which utilize electromagnetic, piezoelectric, or magnetostrictive valves. As a result, they are characterized by a high efficiency of impact absorption, but simultaneously by a complicated construction and a specialized electronic system. The alternative solutions are semi-passive absorbers that ensure a similar performance by using a much simpler, low-cost construction and a less complicated adaptation mechanism. This paper introduces an adaptable semi-passive single-chamber pneumatic shock absorber, SOFT-DROP, which provides the optimal impact absorption and energy dissipation after a single reconfiguration performed at the beginning of the process. The high effectiveness of the proposed concept is proved in numerical and experimental investigations of the device. Moreover, the proposed semi-passive damper is also compared against already known pneumatic absorbers that utilize semi-active control methods. Ultimately, the device might be used in an airdrop system for delivery of light packages.

adaptable, semi-passive, impact absorption, optimal design, pneumatic shock absorber

Mobile Bridge™ is a deployable bridge that uses a scissors mechanism to achieve its useful structural form. The bridge has a compact size in its undeployed state and can be transported easily to where it is needed. Its rapid deployment makes this type of bridge very useful in areas struck by natural disasters by enabling vehicles to cross terrain that has been made impassable. In previous research, experiments and analyses were conducted on a small-scale bridge designed for pedestrians. In order to consider a bridge of increased size, it is necessary to assess whether design and analysis techniques of the small scale bridge are applicable to the full-scale one. In this paper, we consider a full-scale deployable bridge with a lower deck and two scissor units, that allows for a light vehicle to pass across. We have carried out a light vehicle loading test in order to investigate its basic structural characteristics. Furthermore, the paper presents the theoretical design method and numerical models based on the experimental work followed by validation and comparison with the obtained experimental values.

Full-scale Mobile Bridge, Scissor type of emergency bridge, Scissors mechanism, Vehicle loading test

This paper introduces and discusses a new concept of impact absorption by means of impact energy management and storage in dedicated rotating inertial discs. The effectiveness of the concept is demonstrated in a selected case-study involving spinning management, a recently developed novel impact-absorber. A specific control technique performed on this device is demonstrated to be the main source of significant improvement in the overall efficiency of impact damping process. The influence of various parameters on the performance of the shock-absorber is investigated. Design and manufacturing challenges and directions of further research are formulated.

adaptive impact absorption, adaptive inerter, semi-active control, shock-absorber

This paper presents a preliminary research aimed at developing a comprehensive approach to modeling, manufacturing and optimal design of prestressed FRP composite structures. A simple and effective analytical model of prestressed composite is derived and further verified by two numerical models and the results of the experimental tests conducted on manufactured prestressed composite samples. The model reveals beneficial influence of prestress on strain and stress distribution in particular plies and resulting improvement of the global response of the composite. A design case-study of prestressed composite is presented and challenges related to design and application of more complicated composite prestressed structures are discussed.

Prestressed structures, Laminated composites, Prestressed FRP reinforced composites

The surging quest for safety is a clearly visible trend in modern societies. One of the related areas of research is the design of systems protecting against heavy dynamic loads such as low and medium velocity traffic-related impacts and environmental loadings. Commonly applied passive systems are typically designed to withstand a specified, well-defined heavy load scenario, which limits their performance over any wider range of loads, including the less heavy loads that are encountered in the lifetime of a typical structure much more often than the maximum limiting loads.

The main objective of this paper is to investigate the possibility of local structural vibration uppression via introducing initial prestressing. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed method, a two-step approach has been used. Firstly, a prestressed modal analysis has been conducted to measure the influence of the prestressing on changes of eigenfrequencies and eigenmodes. In the second step, a steady dynamic analysis has been performed to harmonic excitation to demonstrate the reduction of local amplitudes. Numerical experiments have been conducted on the model of a small rotorcraft. Our results indicate that introduction of initial prestressing may be used to affect natural structure frequancies and to lower amplitude of vibrations of the structure exposed to external extortions.

Prestressing, vibration suppression.

The paper describes application of innovative, inflatable thin-walled structures for absorption of the impact loading and thoroughly investigates their crash characteristics. The proposed concept assumes inflation of thin-walled structures with compressed gas of appropriately adjusted pressure in order to improve their basic mechanical properties, enhance energy dissipation capabilities, and increase corresponding durability to impact loading. In the first part of the paper the influence of compressed gas on mechanical characteristics of aluminium beverage can is analysed experimentally and by the corresponding numerical simulations. The following section proposes and numerically verifies three diverse engineering applications of inflatable thin-walled structures for impact absorption. Finally, the last part introduces the concept of adaptive inflatable barrier and briefly presents three simple strategies of pressure control. Both the performed basic experiment and the conducted numerical simulations show the advantageous influence of compressed gas and prove the feasibility of using inflatable thin-walled structures for impact absorption.

thin-walled structures, inflatable structures, crashworthiness

A numerical study is presented, which tailors so-called prestress accumulation-release (PAR) strategy to mitigate free vibrations of frame structures. First, the concept of proposed semiactive technique is outlined and possible applications are specified. In the second part of the work a parametric study is discussed, which illustrates the potential of the method for mitigation of free vibrations induced by impact or other initial load scenarios. Special attention is given to the energy balance including all relevant contributions to the total energy of the considered dissipative system. The proposed technique shows a very high potential in mitigation of free vibrations, exceeding 99% of the reference amplitude after 5 cycles of vibration.

Adaptive Impact Absorption focuses on adaptation of energy absorbing structures to actual dynamic loading by using system of sensors detecting and identifying impact in advance and embedded semi-active dissipaters with controllable mechanical properties. Application of such devices allows to modify dynamic characteristics of the structure during the period of impact and to precisely control the process of energy dissipation. The paper presents an overview of research conducted at the Department of Intelligent Technologies of the Institute of Fundamental Technological Research dedicated to design and applications of various systems of Adaptive Impact Absorption. Wide range of presented examples covers adaptive hydraulic and pneumatic landing gears, skeletal systems equipped with controllable elements and detachable joints as well as adaptive inflatable structures.

adaptive impact absorption, safety engineering, smart structures, optimal control

Structural control has been comprehensively studied over the world as a multidisciplinary research field. The present work is motivated by an attempt to give a common frame to the recent research and applications of structural control technology in civil engineering across Europe. They include novel passive dampers, functional materials and semi-active dampers, active control systems, and their performance investigations. Design methods for the vibrations reduction of buildings, bridges, and wind turbines are discussed with reference to case studies. Control algorithms and dimension reduction techniques are also studied. Adaptation strategies and techniques based on the potential offered by piezoelectricity are reviewed.

This paper describes a pneumatic valve based on a multilayer piezoelectric actuator and Hörbiger plates. The device was designed to operate in an adaptive pneumatic shock absorber. The adaptive pneumatic shock absorber was considered as a piston–cylinder device and the valve was intended to be installed inside the piston. The main objective for the valve application was regulating the gas flow between the cylinder's chambers in order to maintain the desired value of the reaction force generated by the shock absorber. The paper describes the design constraints and requirements, together with results of analytical modelling of fluid flow verified versus experimentally obtained data. The presented results indicate that the desired performance characteristics of the valve were obtained. The geometrical constraints of the flow ducts were studied and the actuator's functional features analysed.

The so-called Adaptive Impact Absorption (AIA) is a research area of safety engineering devoted to problems of shock absorption in various unpredictable scenarios of collisions. It makes use of smart technologies (systems equipped with sensors, controllable dissipaters and specialised tools for signal processing). Examples of engineering applications for AIA systems are protective road barriers, automotive bumpers or adaptive landing gears. One of the most challenging problems for AIA systems is on-line identification of impact loads, which is crucial for introducing the optimum real-time strategy of adaptive impact absorption. This paper presents the concept of an impactometer and develops the methodology able to perform real-time impact load identification. Considered dynamic excitation is generated by a mass M1 impacting with initial velocity V0. An analytical formulation of the problem, supported with numerical simulations and experimental verifications is presented. Two identification algorithms based on measured response of the impacted structure are proposed and discussed. Finally, a concept of the AIA device utilizing the idea of impactometer is briefly presented.

Impact load identification, Adaptive Impact Absorption, adaptive structures, real-time systems, impact tests

As a measure to avoid thermally induced cracking in massive concrete, mineral admixtures are often added as a substitute for a certain portion of cement. This paper presents the results of testing in course of which the temperature was measured during hardening of concrete mixtures produced with addition of calcareous fly ash obtained from the Power Station in Bełchatów, Poland. The investigation covered 76 concrete mixtures produced with three different aggregates and diverse binder content. In the experimental part of the research, the thermal parameters of hardening concrete were determined with a specially developed method in which the mixture was placed in a one-dimensional mould which allowed for unrestrained flow of heat in one direction. The results of testing were used to assess the influence of the respective ingredients, in particular calcareous fly ash, on the rate of rise of the fresh concrete temperature, on the time of occurrence of the maximum temperature and on the temperature gradients. Finally, a formula for calculating the specific heat of hydration depending on the mixture composition was proposed.

high calcium fly ash, fresh concrete temperature, heat of hydration, massive concrete, multicomponent cement, temperature gradient

This paper describes the concept of monitoring the massive concrete structures based on the inverse problem solution. Properties of young concrete are changing very intensively in the early stage of hydration process, and therefore it is very important to know material constants as a function of age of concrete in order to accurately modeling the phenomena occurring in it. The main idea is to determine the time-dependent thermal properties of concrete on the basis of point temperature measurements in a small laboratory molds. Then, based on these parameters, the coupled thermo-mechanical equations are solved to describe the maturation and aging of concrete. This allows to specify (at the design stage) the potential risk of structural damage (e.g. thermal cracking) and thus prevent them e.g. through the use of intelligent cooling systems. Own, based on finite element method, software TMC (Thermal & Mechanical modeling of Concrete) gives also the possibility of predicting the formation of cracks during the aging of structure, which will be verified by means of electric sensor networks (so called ELGRID). This integration will enable to provide a complete system for monitoring and prediction of the structural stress state and damage development.

Early Age Concrete, Inverse Heat Transfer Problem, Thermal Cracking of Concrete, Thermal Stress

The paper presents the procedure of determining the thermophysical properties of concrete: heat of hardening, thermal conductivity and specific heat, which is based on point temperature measurements in a cylindrical mold and the numerical solution of the inverse heat transfer problem. The procedure was tested on concrete materials made with high-calcium fly ashes. The obtained results show good agreement with the real values of individual parameters and can be used to determine the temperature field in the object of any complex shape.

calcerous fly ash, heat equation, inverse problem, massive concrete, thermal gradient

The proposed approach assumes that the composite structure is equipped with a specially designed electrical circuit with a 3D grid layout, composed of high resistivity elements embedded in the structure. The special layout of the electrical circuit activated by small currents provides scattered sources of thermal field in the laminate. It is assumed that the circuit elements exhibit failure which is coincident with the commencement of delamination. These breaks in the electrical circuit cause variations in the thermal field which can be observed by a long-wave thermovision camera. The paper is focused on two research aspects. First, some numerical simulations are presented to examine the potential of the idea itself. Next, a simple experiment using a composite sample with a hand-fabricated electrical grid is described. The performance of the grid for an arbitrarily selected position of defect in the investigated composite shows high potential for damage detection.

New method for semi-active control of vibrating structures is introduced. So-called Prestress Accumulation-Release (PAR) strategy aims at releasing of the strain energy accumulated in the structure during its deformation process. The strain energy is converted into kinetic energy of higher modes of vibration which is suppressed with structural damping or by means of a damping device. The adaptation process essentially affects the first mode vibrations by introducing an elastic force that opposes the movement. Numerical simulations as well as experimental results prove that the strategy can be very effective in mitigating of the fundamental mode of a free – vibrating structure. In a numerical example 95% of the vibration amplitude was mitigated after two cycles. An experimental demonstrator shows 85% reduction of the amplitude in a cantilever free- vibrations. In much more complex practical problems smaller portion of total energy can be released from the system in each cycle, nevertheless the strategy could be applied to mitigate the vibrations of, for example, pipeline systems or pedestrian walkways.

The paper (written in two parts) is devoted to the presentation of numerical tools, based on the so-called virtual distortion method (VDM) for fast structural reanalysis and to the application of this tools for optimal design of adaptive structures exposed to impact loads. The first paper deals with fast modifications of the material distribution (coupled stiffness and mass redistribution) in dynamically loaded structures, which allows their optimal remodeling, e.g., to minimize average deflections. The VDM-based approach allows analytical sensitivity determination, which is very helpful in efficient implementation of the optimization procedure, utilized to solve the defined remodeling problem. The presented methodology is illustrated with a numerical example of truss–beam structure exposed to random impact loads.

Fast structural reanalysis, Virtual distortion method, Adaptive impact absorption, Optimal design, Impact loads

This paper is a continuation of the article entitled “Remodeling for Impact Reception.” It presents a generalization of the previously discussed concept on optimal remodeling of elasto-plastic structures exposed to impact load, where remodeling process is simulated via virtual distortion method (VDM). The resultant stiffest structure determined in the first part of this paper determines the initial configuration to design the optimal adaptive structure. It is assumed that considered structure can be equipped with so-called structural fuses with plastic-like behavior and controllable yield stress levels. Such an adaptive structure can still be optimized by the proper selection of locations for structural fuses and by the proper tuning of yield stress levels to the identified impact load. Maximization of the impact energy dissipation as the objective function allows significant reduction of residual vibrations after a few milliseconds. VDM-based algorithms for fast, complex reanalysis of dynamically loaded elasto-plastic structures and their sensitivity analysis are the key tools for the above-mentioned optimization procedures.

Fast structural reanalysis, Virtual distortion method, Adaptive impact absorption, Optimal design, Impact loads

Virtual Distortion Method, a numerical technique originally developed and applied to various optimization problems in structural mechanics, is adapted to DC/AC circuit analysis. Electro-mechanical analogies with discrete models of plain truss structures are utilized to introduce and implement the main concepts of the method. Simulation of conductance modifications in circuit elements by the equivalent set of virtual sources is a foundation of numerically effective algorithms enabling fast re-analysis and sensitivity analysis. Inverse problem of defect identification is discussed and solution based on distortion approach is provided.

optimization, embedded intelligence, structural health monitoring

Collisions with small service ships are serious danger for offshore wind turbines. Installing torus-shaped adaptive inflatable structure that surrounds a wind turbine tower at water level is one method of effective protection. Proposed pneumatic structure contains several separate air chambers equipped with devices for fast inflation and pressure release. The system can be adapted to various impact scenarios by adjusting the level of initial pressure in each chamber and by controlling the release of compressed air during collision. The paper presents finite element simulation of ship collision with wind turbine tower protected by pneumatic structure, conducted using ABAQUS software. Introduced methods of pressure adjustment are aimed at mitigating tower and ship response. The performed feasibility study proves that inflatable structure can effectively protect the wind turbine tower and the ship against serious damage.

Adaptive inflatable structures, pneumatic structures, adaptive impact absorption, flow control, offshore structures, ship collisions

The article presents a review of recent research carried out in the Department of Intelligent Technologies of Institute of Fundamental Technological Research, dedicated to application of systems for adaptive impact absorption to adaptive aircraft landing gears, novel concept of protective MFM structures, flow-control based airbags, maritime applications of inflatable structures, and development of adaptive wind turbine blade – hub connections.

Adaptive Impact Absorption, Adaptive Structure, Optimal Control

This paper focuses on mitigation of dynamic loading induced on off-shore towers by drifting ice. Conical structures attached to off-shore towers at water level are widely used to reduce static and dynamic ice actions. The level of remaining forces is enough to cause severe tower vibrations, therefore a need for an additional device to reduce the remaining actions is recognized. Present study introduces a new, compliant connection between the cone and the tower. Parameters of the connection are controlled semi-actively to optimize the effect. Numerical studies are made to roughly estimate the effectiveness of the new solution. First, contact problem of ice sheet and cone is simulated using simplified material model for ice. Then a numerical model of a wind turbine tower is constructed. Dynamic interaction between cone and tower is simulated and the new solution effectiveness is discussed.

Impact load mitigation, Semi-active control, Conical structures, Ice loading, Off-shore wind turbine, Structural dynamics

The problem of modelling and identification of delamination in double-layer beams has been undertaken within the framework of the virtual distortion method. For delamination modelling, a concept of the contact layer has been proposed, assuming simple but effective truss connections. The laminate layers have been modelled with Bernoulli beams. Good correspondence of the delamination model with experiments has been observed despite disregarding the friction between layers. An algorithm for off-line identification of delamination, solving an inverse problem with the use of gradient optimization, has been proposed. For double cantilever beam examples, two co-existing delamination zones have been successfully detected. An idea of on-line identification of delamination has been put forward, too.

Delamination, Double-layer beams, Identification, Inverse problem

The problem of estimation of a structural loss factor for a beam covered with a viscoelastic layer is addressed in the paper. Two estimation methods based on analytical models for wave propagation in viscoelastic homogenous beams are tested. The methods use different theoretical solutions for spatial distribution of a wave field in the beam. The solutions depend on a complex wave number and frequency. At each frequency within an investigated range the wave number, for which model predictions best approximate experimental response, is found. Structural loss factor is calculated based on the identified value of wave number. Experimental data are measured in a cantilever beam test. For verification purposes the obtained values of loss factor are compared with the results of Oberst test. The presented methods enable determination of loss factor for arbitrary discrete frequencies. They provide an alternative to modal techniques which estimate only values of the parameter corresponding to resonant frequencies.

The paper is a continuation of research on the application of a structural reanalysis method—the virtual distortion method—to structural health monitoring. The first approach, formulated previously in the time domain, suffered from a considerable numerical cost. In order to reduce it, this paper presents an alternative approach, formulated in the frequency domain thanks to the assumption of using harmonic excitation (quasi-static problem). The hardware devices supposed to collect structural responses are piezoelectric patch sensors. The software tool for damage identification solves a nonlinear least squares optimization problem by employing analytically derived sensitivities. Strains are the analyzed quantities, contributing to the objective function. Considerations are restricted to skeletal structures and a simplified dynamic problem with no damping. Effectiveness of the frequency-domain identification is demonstrated in numerical examples. Experimental verification is envisaged.

Damage identification, Inverse problem, Frequency domain, Skeletal structures, Reanalysis methods

For 20 years of development, the virtual distortion method (VDM) has proved to be a versatile reanalysis tool in various applications, including structures and truss-like systems. This article presents a summary of principal achievements, demonstrating the capabilities of the VDM both in statics and dynamics, in linear and nonlinear analysis. The major advantage of VDM is its exactness and no need for matrix inversion in the reanalysis algorithm. The influence matrix—numerical core of the VDM—contains the whole mechanical knowledge about a structure, by looking at all global responses due to local disturbances. The strength of the method is demonstrated for truss structures.

Exact structural reanalysis, Sherman–Morrison–Woodbury formulas, Nonlinear statics and dynamics, System analysis

This paper demonstrates progress in Adaptive Impact Absorption (AIA) research field obtained recently in our research group and is based on previously published conference communicates. The monograph (Ref.[1]), under preparation, will present soon more detailed discussion of the considered problems. In contrast to the standard passive systems the proposed AIA approach focuses on active adaptation of energy absorbing structures (equipped with sensor system detecting and identifying impact in real time and controllable semi-active dissipaters, so called structural fuses) with high ability of adaptation to extreme overloading. A semi-active or fully-active solutions can be applied, which depend on constant or time-dependent modifications realized via controllable dissipative devices. Feasible, adaptive dissipative devices under considerations can be based on MR fluids or (hydraulic or pneumatic) piezo-valves. The presentation will be devoted to the following applications of AIA concept: Adaptive Landing Gears (ALG) for mitigation of exploitative aircraft loads and adaptive flow control based airbags for emergency landing of the helicopter.

Adaptive Impact Absorption, Controlled Shock-absorbers, Adaptive Landing Gear, Inflatable Structures

The objective of this paper is to present an integrated feedback control concept for adaptive landing gears (ALG) and its experimental validation. Aeroplanes are subjected to high dynamic loads as a result of the impact during each landing. Classical landing gears, which are in common use, are designed in accordance with official regulations in a way that ensures the optimal energy dissipation for the critical (maximum) sink speed. The regulations were formulated in order to ensure the functional capability of the landing gears during an emergency landing. However, the landing gears, whose characteristics are optimized for these critical conditions, do not perform well under normal impact conditions. For that situation it is reasonable to introduce a system that would adapt the characteristics of the landing gears according to the sink speed of landing. The considered system assumes adaptation of the damping force generated by the landing gear, which would perform optimally in an emergency situation and would adapt itself for regular landings as well. This research covers the formulation and design of the control algorithms for an adaptive landing gear based on MR fluid, implementation of the algorithms on an FPGA platform and experimental verification on a lab-scale landing gear device. The main challenge of the research was to develop a control methodology that could operate effectively within 50 ms, which is assumed to be the total duration of the phenomenon. The control algorithm proposed in this research was able to control the energy dissipation process on the experimental stand.

Frequency-Based Analysis, Inverse Problem, Piezo Devices, Structural Damage Identification

The paper presents a novel methodology for robust post-accident reconstruction of spatial and temporal characteristics of the load. The methodology is based on analysis of local structural response, and identifies an observationally equivalent load, which in a given sense optimally approximates the real load. Compared to previous researches this approach allows to use a limited number of sensors to reconstruct general dynamic loads of unknown location including multiple impacts and moving loads. Additionally, the problem of optimum sensor location is studied.

impact identification, inverse dynamics, smart systems, structural health monitoring

Adaptive impact absorption is a modern control problem being solved nowadays for several transportation and industry branches. The objective of the impact absorption process is dissipation of the impact energy by means of generation the minimal interface forces and minimal decelerations acting on the protected structure. One of the possibilities for minimization of the impact forces is using of an adaptive actuator that enables adjusting its characteristics to the actual impact energy. The presented research was focused on development of the adaptive impact absorption procedurę and as an example of the adaptive actuator an MR damper was used. The MR damper ensured the convenient rangę of the damping forces to provide the proper controllability of the process. However, sińce impact is a very short phenomenon the performance of the device must have met very strict reąuirements in the field of time delays. High ąuality of the driving electronics is the emphasized factor influencing the system performance. The paper presents the controller for the MR damper and control algorithms with experimental verification.

MR damper, vibrations, damping

A health monitoring tool for leakage identification in water networks is presented. It is assumed that the water heads at the network’s nodes can be measured in different locations of some inspected area. Then, making use of the analytical network model of the actual installation and using the proposed Virtual Distortion Method (VDM) approach, leakages (single as well as in multiple locations, and their intensities) can be detected and identified in the system. The identification methodology takes advantage of a gradient-based optimization technique.

damage identification, water networks, system theory

A new methodology for load identification is proposed. The global dynamic structural response is modeled using only pre-computed, time dependent, dynamic influence matrix, describing structural response to locally generated unit impulses. Then, the impact load identification procedure is based on distance minimization between the modeled and measured local dynamic responses in sensor locations. The theoretical background as well as numerical examples is presented.

structural health monitoring, impact detection, inverse dynamics

A methodology of defect identification in linear DC circuits based on so called Virtual Distortion Method (VDM) will be presented. The proposed approach takes adventage of the analogy linking mechanical models of truss structures and electric circuits. In this paper we cover the issue of modelling defects in electric circuits by compatible state of distortions, next we introduce the concept of influence matrix Dij, which describes global sensitivity of the circuit and enables fast recalculation of system response, and we formulate a gradient method of defect identification (inverse problem) based on local current and voltage measurements. In the following analysis we focus on so-called impotent states of distortions, which are the source of ambiguity of solution. We show that these difficulties can be overcome by a proper measuring strategy.

Defect Identification, Electric Circuits Monitoring, Inverse Problem

The concept of the design of adaptive materials composed of elements with controllable yield stresses is presented and the corresponding, gradient-based numerical design tools are described. Numerical simulation of the adaptation effect to various impact scenarios is demonstrated. The crucial point to get an additional value of energy dissipation (due to synergy of repetitive use of dissipaters in honeycomb-like cellular microstructure) is
to pre-design an optimal distribution of yield stress level in all controllable elements, triggering the desired sequence of local collapses. High effectiveness of active impact energy absorption by the yield stress adjustment demonstrates the potential application of the concept e.g. in shock-absorbing systems.

We analyze initial states of stress and deformation produced in an elastic diphase medium by forcing independent, arbitrary distortion fields, which do not necessarily fulfil the static or geometric constraints in both phases. External prestressing consists mainly in introducing the both phases such distortion fields that the fields of initial stress and deformation induced in one (prestressed) phase cause a desirable adjustment of the distribution of the final states of stress and deformation in this phase. These states are a sum of the corresponding initial states and states caused by external load. The other phase plays a role of the prestressing one. Some examples of an optimal control of the final states of stresses in the prestressed phase are discussed.

The contribution describes three innovative external airbag systems developed by the
authors for the protection of flying objects during emergency landings. The first one is the
AdBag system dedicated for small drones, which is designed to protect the carried equipment
and prevent damages to objects or injuries to people at the crash location. The second system
is external airbag designed for ultralight aircraft Skyleader 600, which provides significant
reduction of touchdown velocity and deceleration levels during emergency landings, thereby
improving protection of the pilot and the passengers. Finally, the last presented solution is the
Spring-Drop system with specialized airbag deployment technique, which is dedicated for
specialised airdrop operations where the touchdown conditions can be extremely harsh and
unexpected, while protection of transported cargo is of crucial importance. Both conceptual
studies, numerical simulations and experimental tests of the three proposed systems are
presented and discussed.

External airbags, adaptive system, emergency landing, human safety

This contribution introduces the concept of sky sailing, which combines the
advantages of airships and standard fixed-wing aircraft, albeit in a vertical plane alignment.
The proposed vehicle is equipped with rigid aerodynamic sails and auxiliary engines, enabling
navigation and control with minimal power consumption along the desired trajectory. The
proper orientation of the airship relative to the wind direction is achieved through the
adjustment of the sails' angle of attack and the use of auxiliary lateral engines. Consequently,
the system enables efficient maneuvering, particularly in windy conditions, while requiring low
energy input. In the current stage of our research, we focus on 2D sky sailing in a horizontal
plane. This study formulates mathematical model which employs a combined approach of
analytical methods and numerical simulations based on finite volume method. Then, the
corresponding control problem aimed at following the desired fly path with the lowest possible
energetic cost. The motivation behind this work stems from the potential applications of aerial
monitoring, such as crop or forest surveillance.

Airship, flight control, optimization, aerospace

In this contribution, the authors propose a concept of novel type of an ultra-light helium-filled aerostat. The internal construction of the proposed aerostat is based on a self-deployable tensegrity structure equipped with prestressed tensioned elements of controllable lengths. Such construction enables convenient transportation of the aerostat and its fast deployment at the required operational point at the atmosphere. The controllable tensegrity structure can be used for simultaneous changes of the aerostat volume and external shape during the flight. This enables modification of buoyancy and drag forces and obtaining a desired vertical and horizontal motion as well as a desired flight path. The authors propose a method of numerical modelling of self-deployable helium-filled aerostats based on the finite element method as well as CFD and FSI models presenting behaviour of aerostat during typical operational conditions. The presented results show the interaction of the internal tensegrity structure and aerostat envelope and positively verify the feasibility of the proposed concept of tensegrity-based aerostats.

tensegrity structure, internal construction, helium-filled aerostat, numerical modelling

In this contribution the authors propose and investigate the concept of adaptive morphing for recently introduced tensegrity-based helium-filled aerostats. The proposed aerostat is based on an ultra-light tensegrity structure equipped with prestressed ensioned elements of controllable lengths. Such internal structure allows for adaptive morphing of the aerostat defined as simultaneous controllable modifications of aerostat volume and external shape during the flight. The controlled volume changes enable influencing buoyancy forces acting on the envelope and obtaining desired vertical motion of the aerostat during the ascending and descending process (“vertical mobility”). In turn, the controlled changes of external shape of the aerostat can be used either for lowering the aerodynamic drag forces and reducing energy usage needed to maintain stable horizontal position or to follow the desired path of aerostat horizontal motion (“horizontal stability”). The authors effectively apply the previously introduced mechanical FEM model of the tensegrity-based aerostat and dynamic model of the aerostat’s vertical and horizontal motion to conduct simulations of the process of adaptive morphing and maintain a proper position in the atmosphere. The obtained results positively verify the idea of adaptive morphing and its efficiency in controlling vertical and horizontal motion of the aerostat.

tensegrity structure, helium-filled aerostat, adaptive morphing, vertical mobility, horizontal stability

For over two decades, inerter-based devices are a subject of research papers, patents and engineering reports. Since 2002, when the inerter was introduced as the missing element of mechanical networks, various applications of the inerter have been proposed. They include solutions for earthquake engineering, suspensions of vehicles, aircraft landing gears and even systems improving walking performance of humanoid robots. In contrast to majority of the inerter-based systems, which are mainly developed for vibration mitigation problems, this paper concerns the inerter as the shock-absorber protecting objects excited by the impact. In particular, adaptive performance of the ball-screw inerter with variable moment of the flywheel inertia is investigated. In order to ensure efficient adaptation of the inerter to various excitation conditions, the single reconfiguration technique, which was successfully applied for pneumatic absorber, is now adjusted and implemented in the proposed inertial system. The contribution consists of the concept introduction, discussion of the mathematical model of the system, theoretical as well as numerical analyses. Results of the presented study show that optimal impact absorption can be obtained in semi-passive manner. The properly adjusted geometry of the surface guides for the inertial elements ensure appropriate variability of the flywheel moment of inertia. Variable moment of the flywheel inertia provides optimal deceleration of the amortized object. The calculated moment of inertia depends on the mass of amortized object and friction but it is independent of the impact velocity.

ball-screw inerter, impact absorption, passive absorber, variable inertance, variable moment of inertia, inertial damping

This article is devoted to space truss-like structures commonly used for solar panel installations or telecommunication antennas. Such structures have obvious advantage of beneficial ratio of their stiffness to mass. One of challenges in satellite engineering is focused on special design of ultra-light structures, compacted during transportation to the orbit, able to deploy into large cantilever with e.g. photovoltaic panels (being on the orbit). This approach allows for better withstands the launch loads in compact configuration. The proposed smart topology (SMARTOP) of the structure enables for easy, zero-energetic transformation from the compact, two-dimensional form into the final, tree-dimensional configuration, making use of stored pre-stress energy, released with use of specially controlled clutches. Main innovations are in specially design topology and so-called smart clutches performing controlled release of stored strain energy in a proper timing. Numerical simulations of the SMARTOP structure functionalities are presented.

self-deployable structures, prestressed truss-like structures, rod-cable structures, joint connections, vibration reduction

In this article we propose a new concept of adaptive telescopic high-altitude aerostat designed in a modular form which allows for sequential changes of volume during the flight. The proposed telescopic aerostat can be easily enlarged or contracted due to application of multi-segmented construction, controllable segments’ couplings and precise adjustment of internal pressure obtained using additional gas tank, valve and compressor. Conducted changes of aerostat volume allow to precisely control generated lift force and to obtain desired paths of ascending and descending. The paper briefly presents development of control strategies aimed at: i) reaching the subsequent altitudes in the shortest period of time, ii) reaching these altitudes at the smallest cost defined as total work done by the compressor. The obtained results show high potential of the proposed innovative concept of the aerostat.

helium airship, control of vertical mobility, reduced energy consumption, optimal ascending and descending paths

Small drones with total mass of a few kilograms are becoming more and more popular in many applications increasing the probability of occurrence of emergency situations caused by an equipment failure or a human error. In case of a fall from a high altitude very often it is possible to use parachute rescue systems, which however require relatively long time for deployment and development of braking forces. The touchdown velocity may be large enough to exceed limit accelerations for UAV equipment. The paper presents the concept of deployable airbag systems, in particular with adaptive flow control, which provides a possible solution to the above-mentioned problems. The paper discusses the overall control and adaptation strategy. Simplified methods for mathematical modeling are proposed and formulated for an example on a cylindrical airbag. The conceptual part is concluded with the presentation of the methodology of experimental verification and results of initial tests of the integrated airbag system.

The paper is aimed at discussion of various control techniques developed for adaptive impact-absorbers protecting structures and machines. Different approaches to the problem of optimal damper design are presented and systems comparison is provided with the example of pneu-matic shock-absorber. The influences of selected control strategy on the absorber characteris-tics, its efficiency and adaptation capabilities are shown. The contribution includes both numerical and experimental examples. The authors highlight the fact that the final design of the device should be elaborated simultaneously with the development of dedicated control system. In some cases properly assumed architecture of the control system enables significant simplifi-cation of the absorber. The paper covers analyses of semi-passive devices with single reconfig-uration to identified excitation conditions and semi-active absorbers capable of adaptation to unknown impact loading. Adaptation mechanisms of such devices and their robustness are com-pared in reference to volatility of system parameters and variety of loading conditions. Limita-tions of smart devices (e.g. piezo-electric valve in pneumatic absorbers) used in practice for absorbers' control are described in relevant mathematical models. Technological challenges in the design and manufacturing of absorbers are identified and methods of their overcoming are proposed.

Adaptive Impact Absorption, adaptive control, adaptable system, damper

We have experienced many times a phenomenon in which a bridge is washed away due to a typhoon, heavy rain in the rainy season, localized torrential rain, tsunami, and other flood disasters, or in which a bridge is damaged by an earthquake or a tremor. There is accordingly increasing demand for new technology and science to restore bridges that have been washed away or damaged. The paper presents a new type of emergency bridge, called Mobile Bridge™(MB), which can be quickly constructed in case of damages after a natural disaster. The concept of the bridge is based on the application of scissor-type mechanism, which provides its rapid deployment. Up to now several experimental MBs of different size were constructed and tested. The presented research reviews fundamental numerical and experimental results for the MB version 4.0 (MB4.0). Experimental testing included strain and acceleration measurements in free and forced loading conditions. From these results, it was possible to estimate basic dynamic characteristics of the bridge. Besides, in order to provide a basis for development of new construction methods for structural reinforcement and suppression of vibrations, various numerical analyses were conducted. The conducted research allows for a better and safer design of the movable and foldable full-scale bridge, the MB.

deployable bridge, scissors-type bridge, emergency bridge, light-weight structure, temporary bridge

The paper presents a new type of emergency bridge, which can be quickly constructed in case of damages after a natural disaster. The concept of the bridge is based on the application of scissor-type mechanism, which provides its rapid deployment. In case of deployable structures apart from static analysis of different configurations of expansion, it is very important to investigate the dynamic behavior of the system. High compliance and flexibility of the scissors-type bridge may influence user's comfort and safety in case of heavy dynamic loads such as human induced impacts, wind gusts or earthquakes. Up to now, the authors constructed several types of the experimental MBs. The presented research reviews fundamental numerical and experimental results for the Mobile Bridge 4.0. Experimental testing included strain and acceleration measurements in free and forced loading conditions. From these results, it was possible to estimate basic mechanics characteristics, that is statics and dynamic property, of the bridge. The conducted research allows for a better and safer design of the structure of the Mobile Bridge.

Deployable Bridge, Scissors-type bridge, Emergency Bridge, Dynamic property, Natural frequency, Acceleration measurement

This paper discusses passive and semi-active techniques of structural control by means of smart joints, and then it proposes a specific smart joints system for frame structures and tests its capability in mitigation of free vibrations. Basically, the proposed solution modifies frame beams by addition of truss-type hinges, and its effectiveness relies on the softening effect that occurs in compression due to geometric nonlinearities and which triggers the highly-damped high-frequency response modes of the structure. First, the finite element (FE) model of the specific frame structure with geometrical nonlinearities is derived, and the proposed passive joints are described and incorporated into the model. Then, their principle of operation and effectiveness is examined numerically for the first two natural modes of vibrations with various initial displacement amplitudes. An objective function is proposed to assess joints placement, based on the efficiency in mitigation of the excited vibrations.

Vibration Damping, Structure Response, Smart Structure, Structural Control

Adaptive structures, equipped with so-called structural fuses (based on fast responding piezo-devices), able to connect/disconnect instantly selected structural interface, allows effective protection against resonance induction via externally forced vibrations. The presented case study demonstrates haw forced vibrations with modifiable frequencies can be smoothly received, if structural fuses are properly activated/deactivated when the external excitation approaches the structural eigen frequencies.

Adaptive structures, forced vibrations, avoiding resonance, structural fuses

Pneumatic dampers are still an attractive subject of research in both modelling and experimental testing. Progress in the field of sensors and actuators allows to construct more and more efficient absorbers and dampers based on active or semi-active control algorithms. However, passive and semi-passive solutions are also developed because of their lower costs and simplicity. This paper presents adaptable pneumatic shock-absorber that allows to obtain optimal impact absorption and energy dissipation by a single reconfiguration performed at the beginning of the process. The absorber is composed of two cylinders including at least one narrow rectangular slot and adequate number of outflow vents precisely shaped for certain impact scenarios. During operation of the device the air is released through overlapping slots and selected vents, which provides constant value of the generated force. As a result, the shock-absorber works as a passive device but provides minimal value of the reaction force in similar manner as semi-active system equipped with fully controllable mechanical valve. The paper presents the results of numerical simulations of adaptable shock-absorber operation and attempts of demonstrator construction aimed at conducting experimental verification of the concept.

Adaptable, Semi-passive, Impact Absorption, Pneumatic Shock-absorber

This paper presents results of experimental tests of a demonstrator structure equipped with variable stiffness nodes for suppression of free vibrations. So called Prestress Accumulation-Release (PAR) strategy for on-off control of these nodes is utilized. The obtained system is semi-active. The core of the controllable nodes are linear piezo-actuators.

Adaptive Structures, On-Off Control, Variable Stiffness Joint

This contribution reviews the challenges in adaptive self-protection of structures. A proper semi-active control strategy can significantly increase structural ability to absorb impact-type loads and damp the resulting vibrations. Discussed systems constitute a new class of smart structures capable of a real-time identification of loads and vibration patterns, followed by a low-cost optimum absorption of the energy by structural adaptation. Given the always surging quest for safety, such systems have a great potential for practical applications (in landing gears, road barriers, space structures, etc.). Compared to passive systems, their better performance can be attributed to the paradigm of self-adaptivity, which is ubiquitous in nature, but still sparsely applied in structural engineering. Being in the early stages of development, their ultimate success depends on a concerted effort in facing a number of challenges. This contribution discusses some of the important problems, including these of a conceptual, technological, methodological and software engineering nature.

adaptive impact absorption, smart structures, semi-active control, safety engineering

The problem of dynamic response stabilization is a crucial issue in many engineering applications or structures subjected to an external source of excitation or dynamic load. At present, owing predominantly to advances in measurement technology, microprocessor control and development of smart materials it is possible to solve many of these problems. Semi-active or active damping systems, which are used to improving structure response, requires additional dampers or absorbers. Contrary, in the article we present approach of suppressing local vibration via introducing initial prestressing into the chosen element or elements of the structure. In that way it is possible to change properties of the structure and its modes of vibrations. We present the results of numerical simulations of the mechanical structure subjected to external excitations. Our results show that by introducing prestressing it is possible to significantly influence on eigenfrequances and eigenmodes. Also effectiveness of vibration amplitudes reduction can be significantly larger, at least one order of magnitude larger.

local suppresion of forced vibrations, prestressing, sensitivity analysis and prestress optimization

This contribution presents and overviews a new class of strategies for Adaptive Impact Absorption (AIA) and illustrates a selected strategy in a numerical example. The proposed strategies are based on a challenging approach of a semi-active management and dissipation of structural kinetic and potential energy. The entire process of AIA is considered, including its two main phases: semi-actively controlled reception of an impact and semi-actively controlled damping of the resulting structural vibrations. Management and redistribution of impact energy seems to be one of the most promising and challenging problems in the field of AIA, which requires a substantial theoretical progress in semi-active control strategies and in structural optimization, besides a technological progress in semi-active actuators.

Adaptive impact absorption, smart structures, adaptive structures, impact energy management, bilinear control, switched systems

The so-called Adaptive Impact Absorption (AIA) is a research area of safety engineering devoted to problems of shock absorption in various unpredictable scenarios of collisions. It makes use of smart technologies including systems equipped with sensors, controllable dissipaters and specialized tools for signal processing. One of the most challenging problems for AIA systems is on-line identification of impact lo ads, which is crucial for introducing optimum real-time strategy of adaptive impact absorption. This paper presents development of methodology which enables real-time impact load identification. In considered problem a dynamic excitation is generated by a mass M 1 impacting with initial velocity V 0. An analytical formulation of the problem, corresponding numerical simulations and experimental tests are presented. Two identification algorithms based on measured response of the impacted structure are proposed and thoroughly discussed. Finally, a concept of the AIA device utilizing the idea of detecting device (the so called “impactometer”) is briefly described.

Impact Load Identification, Adaptive Impact Absorption, Real-time Systems

The objective of this work was to develop a mathematical model of coupled thermodynamic and mechanical processes proceeding in pneumatic, adaptive absorbers under cyclic loadings. The results of the modelling were to be verified versus experimentally obtained data. The analysis was divided into sections devoted to: forces acting on the piston, thermodynamics of the gas in the absorber’s chambers, gas flow through the piezoelectric valve. Three control volumes were distinguished within the absorber’s structure in order to analyze the thermodynamic processes. For each control volume analysis of energy balance, thermodynamic state parameters and heat transfer were performed. A set of equations was formulated for each control volume in order to determine: (1) motion of the piston in relation to the acting forces, (2) the gas state evolution, (3) energy balance within each control volume and (4) heat transfer to the surroundings. The obtained results revealed that the proposed approach to modeling was in good agreement with the data obtained experimentally. The controllability of the absorber was successfully reflected by means of the numerical model outcome.

In this paper a numerical study is presented, witch tailors so-called Prestress Accumulation-Relase (PAR) Strategy to mitigate free vibrations of frame structures. First, the concept of proposed semi-active technique is outlined and possible applications are specified. In the second part of the work a parametric study is discussed, which illustrates the potential of the method for mitigation of free vibrations induced by impact or other initial load scenarios. Special attention is given to the energy balance including all relevant contributions to the total energy of the considered dissipative system. The proposed technique shows a very high potential in mitigation of free vibrations, exceeding 99% of the reference amplitude after 5 cycles of vibration.

In this paper we numerically study simple two dimensional frame structure loaded by impulse-like excitations. Various configurations of time duration of a single impact load and location of this excitation are investigated. The aim of this research is to indicate the best possible load case for identification of a specific damage. Two kinds of structural modifications are considered. The first group concerns the element stiffness changes (axial and bending) which can be simulated by alternating the Young‘s modulus. The second group covers the modifications of stiffness nodal connections. In a numerical model, these kinds of defects can be implemented using rotational spring with different characteristics. Obtained selected responses for the original and modified structure are numerically generated.

structural modification, semi-rigid joint, virtual distortion method, gradient-based optimization

This study presents the numerical analysis and experimental tests of a planar frame structure with semi-rigid joints. Based on structural responses the identification of nodal parameters is performed.

Frame structures, Semi-rigid joints, Inverse problem, SHM

This contribution presents the concept of smart, deployable skeletal structures along with existing and prospective applications. The first part introduce s the concept of multi-folding, which is the basis for the design of all smart deployable skeletal structures. In the second part three diverse innovative applications are described: deployable mobile bridge, adaptive impact absorber and controllable valve.

smart skeletal structures, adaptive impact absorption, safety engineering

A numerical and experimental investigation on thermal behavior of young concrete is presented. It haseen performed to establish the range of possible applications of concrete containing non-standard addition of reactive high calcium fly ash. The proposed model of temperature distribution in hardening concrete is based on the non-linear IH TP (inverse heat transfer problem ) solution. Changes in properties of concrete during setting and hardening are included in the model. The proposed approach consists of several stages. First the temperature measurements in a one-dimensional form are performed using real size concrete materials. Then the method of lines is used to solve the one dimensional heat equation. The results are treated as an input to IHTP for determination of thermal properties of concrete: specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity and heat of hardening. To solve IHTP the pattern search method is used, which does not require the calculation of the gradient of the objective function. In the third step the direct heat conduction problem is solved. Own, based on finite element method, software TMC (Thermal & Mechanical modeling of Concrete) is used to predict temperature field. The obtained numerical results have been compared with experimentally measured temperature in concrete and a fair agreement has been found

early age concrete, inverse problem, heat transfer, high calcium fly ash

Adaptive Impact Absorption focuses on adaptation of energy absorbing structures to actual dynamic loading by using system of sensors detecting and identifying impact in advance and semi -active dissipaters with controllable mechanical properties which enable change of system dynamic characteristics in real time. The article present s a review of research conducted at the Department of Intelligent Technologies of the Institute of Fundamental Technological Research dedicated to applications of systems for Adaptive Impact Absorption. Wide range of presented examples covers pneumatic landing gears, bumpers for offshore towers, wind turbine blade-hub connections and d protective barriers for automotive applications.

adaptive impact absorption, safety engineering, smart structures, optimal control

This paper describes concepts of two different technologies developed for control of gas flow in High Performance Actuator (HPA) and control of gas discharge from airbag system through High Performance Valve (HPV). The HPA technology utilizes piezoelectric valve to govern flow in the pneumatic cylinder, used as an impact absorber or smart damper, while the HPV uses membrane surfaces driven by flow and controlled by explosive rings to mode discharge of an airbag system. Both techniques, different in their nature realizes comparatively similar function in flow different scales but similar time scale, where each cycle of operation is near single milliseconds. The paper also covers experimental results and a simple numerical study on the High Performance Valve (HPV) concept developed for a control of an adaptive inflatable impact energy absorber (gas-bag). Patent pending concept of the HPV is utilizing a flow energy drive method, using the flow energy to move and seal working parts of the valve.

Adaptive devices, Piezo-valve, Airbag, Valve, Explosion, Control

Collisions with small service ships are serious dangers for offshore wind turbines. Installing of the adaptive torus-shaped pneumatic fender that surrounds wind turbine tower at water level constitutes on e method of effective protection against such events. Innovative pneumatic fender proposed in this paper contains several internal air-chambers equipped wit h fast inflators and high-performance valves allowing for control of gas migration and release. The system ca n be adapted to various impact scenarios by adjusting the level of initial pressure in each chamber and by controlling transfer of compressed gas during impact. The paper presents numerical simulations of ship collision against wind turbine tower protected by adaptive fender conducted by means of FEM-based software. Several control strategies aimed at mitigating tower and ship response are introduced. Performed feasibility study proves that inflatable structure can effectively protect the wind turbine tower and the ship against serious damages.

Adaptive Inflatable Structures (AIS), pneumatic fenders, Adaptive Impact Absorption (AIA), offshore collisions, off-shore docking operations

The nodal connections in the standard analysis of frame structures are idealized assuming either pinned or fully rigid joints. State of such structural connections is highly important for safe operation of skeletal structures. In this work, the authors propose modeling, detection and identification of semi-rigid joints, i.e. nodal connections covering the range between pinned and fully rigid joints. The presented approach is based on the Virtual Distortion Method (VDM) and dedicated to statically or dynamically loaded two-dimensional frame structures.

The authors propose an idea of monitoring the state of skeletal structures of high importance (e.g. roof structures over large area buildings) with the aim of identification of slowly-developing plastic zones. This is formulated as an inverse problem within the framework of the Virtual Distortion Method, which was used previously to identify stiffness/mass modifications in similar manner. Permanent plastic strains developed in a truss element can be modeled by an initial strain (virtual distortion) introduced to the structure. The formation of subsequent plastic zones in the structure is assumed to be slow. Consequently, the design variable (plastic strain) is time-independent, which makes the inverse analysis efficient. This article presents problem formulation and numerical algorithm for identification of the plastic strains in truss structures. The identification relies on gradient-based optimization. A numerical example is included to demonstrate the efficiency of the algorithm.

Adaptive Impact Absorption focuses on active adaptation of energy absorbing structures to actual dynamic loading by using system of sensors detecting and identifying impact in advance and controllable semi-active dissipaters with high ability of adaptation. The article presents a review of research carried out in the Department of Intelligent Technologies of Institute of Fundamental Technological Research dedicated to applications of systems for adaptive impact absorption. Wide range of presented examples covers pneumatic landing gears, adaptive crashworthy structures, wind turbine blade-hub connections and flow control based airbags for maritime and aeronautical applications.

smart structures, adaptive structures, Adaptive Impact Absorption, crashworthiness, safety engineering

This paper presents the concept of smart structures dedicated to improving structural safety in case of unpredictable impact loadings. The concept is developed by bringing together two different ideas: adaptive impact absorption (AIA) and structural health monitoring (SHM). The potential for safe energy dissipation is maximized by optimum structural adaptation to impact loading parameters, for which the AIA subsystem is responsible. The SHM subsystem is used for on-line identification of impact type loadings, which is necessary in order to trigger optimum adaptation, as well as for post-impact damage assessment. Both subsystems depend on smart material technologies: optimum adaptation can be implemented through a small number of optimally distributed structural fuses, that is elements with controllable yield stresses, which can be implemented using magneto-rheological fluids, while the health and loading monitoring require a reliable sensing system, e.g. based on piezo-materials. The paper presents the general concept, provides a literature review and discusses in detail the challenges related to the SHM part.

adaptivity, crashworthiness, inverse problems, structural monitoring, smart materials

This paper proposes a benchmark for conceptual devices dedicated to adaptive impact absorption (AIA) and protection against shock excitations. The problem of the exploitation impacts is present in a wide class of applications, and particularly where direction of the object’s movement is well-defined, for example: precise docking systems, rail car buffers or landing gear shock absorbers. In those applications the objective is to equalize the values of velocities of the bodies in order to minimize the deceleration peak. The proposed benchmark establishes a comparing procedure for materials or devices in the field of AIA in a simplified regime in order to improve the comparability of the solutions. A drop test device is proposed to be used for testing the proposed devices in the predefined experimental regime. Besides, an example of the adaptive absorber is presented.

This paper presents and experimentally verifies a method for identification of structural damage. The work is focused on such damage types as cracks, delamination or excessive allowances, which may not cause significant stiffness degradation but induce noticeable additional damping. Damaged elements are located and the damage is assessed in terms of the damage-induced damping and also the stiffness degradation. The Virtual Distortion Method (VDM) is used for modeling of the modifications.

The class of ultra-light aircraft becomes more and more popular among the enthusiasts of aviation due to low formal requirements of getting the pilot license and low costs of the equipment. Therefore, the training of the pilots starts to be a large-scale task. One of the most difficult operation for the inexperienced pilots is touch-down and it often happens to strike the ground with a high sink speed. In consequence the training machines are endangered of fast structural damage. A potential solution would be to mount a system of adaptive landing gear for light aircraft with a capability of recognition of the actual landing impact and tuning the landing struts in order to conduct the smoothest landing operation possible. In the case of the ultra-light aircraft class the weight of the components is the crucial task and therefore the low-weight pneumatic system is proposed for these application.
The paper presents a concept of an adaptive landing system and adequate control strategy for a small aerial vehicle. The objective of the work was to develop a fully functional model of the landing system and experimental verification of it. The system is based on the new pneumatic impact absorbers actuated via piezo-stacks. The concept assumes designing of the system with the capability of adaptation to actual energy of impact scenario identified by a dedicated sensing system for impact energy recognition.
The designed control system was dedicated to process the data from the system of impact energy recognition in order to perform the optimal landing scenario. The objective of the control strategy was minimization of the structure’s deceleration peaks during the touchdown.
The presented results consist of numerical analysis of the adopted strategy of control and experimental verification of the concept on the dedicated experimental device. The results proved that the proposed method allowed minimization of the maximal deceleration level acting on the demonstrator.

This paper proposes a new approach for modeling and identification of damping in linear structures. The approach is based on the Virtual Distortion Method (VDM), which is a reanalysis methodology for fast modeling and identification of structural parameters. The VDM is extended in the sense of considering structural damping in frequency domain. The assumed damping model is a modified version of the proportional damping, which allows to distinguish between and to modify independently the damping properties of each element and in each degree of freedom. In this way, a precise formulation of the task of remodeling of damping is possible. Moreover, the proposed approach is used to state and solve the (basically nonlinear) inverse problem of identification of material damping by decomposing it into two linear subproblems.

damping identification, structural reanalysis, Virtual Distortion Method (VDM)

The problem of safe, impact loads absorption is present in a wide class of applications, and particularly where direction of the object's movement is well-defined, for example: precise docking systems, rail car buffers or landing gear shock absorbers. In those applications the objective is to absorb gradually impact energy, minimizing the deceleration peak. For safety reasons, the class of drop-caps (eg. in delivery business) or bigger airdrops from airplanes or from stratospheric airships (space debris) becomes a challenge for next decades. However, knowing the dropping mass and estimating the touchdown velocity, our SAI shock-absorbers (cf. [1]) made of multi-layered, "delaminable" panels, can be adapted to the expected impact. Therefore, let us concentrate on the SAI concept based on the following steps: -- design a multi-layer structure capable of semi-active "delamination" control along the contact infrastructure (slipping lines). -- apply an actuator realizing the on/off type of semi-active control for slipping lines' activation, playing the role of structural clutch (cf. the actuator in the so-called PAR vibration suppression technique, [2-3]), -- apply various characteristics for the contact interfaces (friction coefficient), -- apply various control strategies for the slipping lines activation (and releasing of the pre-stress effect), depend on the case study and identified on-line impact parameters. The effectiveness of the proposed, adaptive approach to impact absorption (so-called Depress Dampers) will be compared versus traditional shock-absorbers, based on passive honeycomb panels (cf. also adaptive pneumatic shock-absorber concept).

This contribution reviews a recently proposed semi-active control approach based on the Prestress-Accumulation Release strategy, which aims at damping of structural vibrations by promoting vibration energy transfer from lower- into higher-order modes that have significant material damping. Unlike typical semi-active control, which focuses on local dissipation in actuators, the aim is to trigger natural global damping mechanisms. The actuators are controllable truss-frame nodes: lockable hinges that can change their mode of operation from a frame node (locked hinge) into truss node (free rotation). Sudden removal of such a kinematic constraint releases the accumulated bending energy into high-frequency quickly damped local vibrations. Two formulations are reviewed: decentralized with local-only feedback, and global, which aims at a targeted energy transfer between specific modes. Experimental results confirm the effectiveness using free, forced harmonic and random vibrations.

This contribution reviews a recently proposed control strategy for mitigation of vibrations based on the Prestress-Accumulation Release (PAR) approach [1]. The control is executed by means of semi-actively controllable truss-frame nodes. Such nodes have an on/off ability to transfer bending moments: they are able to temporary switch their operational characteristics between the truss-like and the frame-like behaviors. The focus is not on local energy dissipation in the nodes treated as friction dampers, but rather on stimulating the global transfer of vibration energy to high-order modes. Such modes are high-frequency and thus highly dissipative by means of the standard mechanisms of material damping. The transfer is triggered by temporary switches to the truss-like state performed at the moments of a high local bending strain. A sudden removal of a kinematic constraint releases the locally accumulated strain energy into high-frequency and quickly damped vibrations.
The first formulation investigated global control laws [1]. Recent approaches generalized it to decen-tralized control with a local-only feedback, which was tested in damping of free vibrations [2] as well as forced vibrations [3]. Recently, a global formulation was proposed that aims at a targeted energy transfer between specific vibration modes [4], and attempts were made to go beyond skeletal struc-tures [5]. Numerical and experimental results will be presented to confirm the high effectiveness of the approach in mitigation of free, forced random and forced harmonic vibrations.

The inerter is a subject of intensive research in the field of structural dynamics and control since 2002, when it was introduced by Malcolm Smith. Inerter-based devices are implemented in various practical applications, which include protective systems in earthquake engineering, suspensions of trains, road vehicles and aircraft landing gears. The majority of inerter applications proposed in the literature concerns vibration mitigation problems, e.g., implementation of the inerter in tuned mass dampers. In contrast, this contribution discusses an application of the inerter for solving the problem of impact absorption. The inerter was previously considered as a shock-absorber in [Ref.] but optimal impact mitigation was not provided. Recently, the authors have studied a simple inerter device based on the ball-screw mechanism with a variable thread lead, which ensures minimization of the generated reaction force and the optimal impact absorption. This contribution sums up the results obtained in the full-length journal paper, currently under review.

ball-screw inerter, impact absorption, passive absorber, variable inertance, variable moment of inertia, inertial damping

The world has seen many kinds of natural disasters, which have critically influenced the residents' lives by causing damage to infrastructure. To realize rapid rescue efforts in an emergency situation, we propose a deployable emergency bridge, called Mobile Bridge TM [1], based on the theory of foldable structures[2]and the concept of Multi-Folding Microstructures (MFM)[3]. The current research presents the fundamental,numerical and experimental results obtained for the pedestrian and vehicle Mobile Bridges. In this paper, it is considered the localized linearization problem with the fixed an angle although this bridge contains a geometrical nonlinearity of scissors structure. Additionally, a seismic response analysis is conducted for the case where the Mobile Bridge is used in the disaster area as an emergency bridge. This allows for a better and safer structural design of the Mobile Bridge, which is patented in [4],[5].

The paper presents a new type of emergency bridge, which can be quickly constructed in case of damages after a natural disaster. The concept of the bridge is based on the application of scissor-type mechanism, which provides its rapid deployment. In case of deployable structures apart from static analysis of different configurations of expansion, it is very important to investigate the dynamic behavior of the system. High compliance and flexibility of the scissors-type bridge may influence user's comfort and safety in case of heavy dynamic loads such as human induced impacts, wind gusts or earthquakes. Up to now, the authors constructed several types of the experimental MBs. The presented research reviews fundamental numerical and experimental results for the Mobile Bridge 4.0. Experimental testing included strain and acceleration measurements in free and forced loading conditions. From these results, it was possible to estimate basic mechanics characteristics, that is statics and dynamic property, of the bridge. The conducted research allows for a better and safer design of the structure of the Mobile Bridge.

Deployable Bridge, Scissors-type bridge, Emergency Bridge, Dynamic property, Natural frequency, Acceleration measurement

Pneumatic dampers are still an attractive subject of research in both modelling and experimental testing. Progress in the field of sensors and actuators allows to construct more and more efficient absorbers and dampers based on active or semi-active control algorithms. However, passive and semi-passive solutions are also developed because of their lower costs and simplicity. This paper presents adaptable pneumatic shock-absorber that allows to obtain optimal impact absorption and energy dissipation by a single reconfiguration performed at the beginning of the process. The absorber is composed of two cylinders including at least one narrow rectangular slot and adequate number of outflow vents precisely shaped for certain impact scenarios. During operation of the device the air is released through overlapping slots and selected vents, which provides constant value of the generated force. As a result, the shock-absorber works as a passive device but provides minimal value of the reaction force in similar manner as semi-active system equipped with fully controllable mechanical valve. The paper presents the results of numerical simulations of adaptable shock-absorber operation and attempts of demonstrator construction aimed at conducting experimental verification of the concept.

Adaptable, Semi-passive, Impact Absorption, Pneumatic Shock-absorber.

The goal of this paper is to present further development of the inertial shock-absorber called SPINMAN. Application of the device in mitigation of structures response is investigated and selected case study is discussed. The specific construction and operation of the device is introduced and explained. In reference to the impact absorption problems, the SPIN-MAN is a concept of adaptive inerter device with two phases of operation. The first of them includes energy absorption and accumulation. External energy of the load is converted to kinetic energy of rotational motion of the mass. During the second phase, accumulated energy is dissipated by inverse spinning of the second mass powered by the remaining part of the impact energy. To obtain this type of operation, special switchable actuators are used. Applicability of the device in mitigation of impact-born structure response, especially in case of space systems, is investigated. General concept of the device construction and operation is adjusted to meet the requirements for space systems. This results in a fluidless, passive-like solution but adaptable to the load conditions. Tuning of the shock-absorber may be realized by manual or easily automated mechanical adjustments. Effectiveness of the solution is based on the specific on/off type of control, which is responsible for the optimal energy flow in the system and efficient dissipation of impact energy inside the SPIN-MAN. Results of numerical simulations confirmed quick and effective operation of this device.

structure response mitigation, adaptive impact absorption, adaptive inerter, semi-active control, shock-absorber

scissor type of bridge, emergency bridge, strut reinforcement, sectional optimization

Adaptive Impact Absorption, shock-absorber, vibration damping

Smart And Adaptive Structures, Adaptive Impact Absorption, Safety Engineering

high performance valve, bistable elements, snap-through, adaptive impact absorption

Many natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, torrential rains occur around the world, and we to undertake quick rescue actions. However, there are many recovery problems because of the occurrence of secondary disasters at each rescue worksite.So, from the previous study of optimal structures and control regulation of MFM[1]-[2], we propose a new type of foldable bridge with scissors structure called Mobile Bridge[3]. Applying scissors mechanism to bridge form, Mobile Bridge provides not only mobility but also good structural performance, because the whole bridge can be expand or fold quickly. In this paper, we discuss the vehicles passing test on the real scale Mobile Bridge in order to evaluate the design method and application limits.

Mobile Bridge, deployable structures, temporary bridges, scissors-type structures

Results of numerical simulations for transonic flow in control valve are presented. The valve is the main part of an adaptive pneumatic shock absorber. Flow structure in the valve domain and the influence of the flow non-uniformity in the valve on a mass flow rate is investigated. Numerical simulation results are compared with experimental data.

pneumatic valve, transonic flow, numerical simulations

The virtual distortion method (VDM) [1] is a quick reanalysis method developed in the Institute of Fundamental Technological Research (IPPT PAN). Earlier related work includes the research of professors Nowacki, Eshelby, Kroener, Argyris, Maier, Majid and Celik, and others; for references see [1, 2]. The term virtual distrotion has been coined in 1989 [3], and the concept of the influence matrix has been proposed, which is the distinguishing factor of the VDM that provides for its effectiveness. This contribution presents the background and formulation of the method and reviews its applications in safety engineering.

Dissipation of the energy in mechanical systems is a vitally important engineering and scientific problem. Current stringent safety requirements enforce substantial change of methods of structural design and application of new solutions and technologies which ensure structural integrity.
Currently applied passive safety systems are typically not equipped with control devices. Their dynamic characteristics remains unaltered and thus it is well adjusted to a narrow range of actual loadings. In case of impact loading, it is highly advantageous to apply systems of Adaptive Impact Absorption (AIA), which are capable of fast change of the dynamic characteristics. Recent fast development of the material technologies and, in particular, development in the field of functional (smart) materials and electronic measurement and control systems had created new possibilities of practical applications of the AIA systems.
During the adaptation process the choice of optimal control strategy is followed by adjustment of the dynamic characteristics of adaptive elements of the absorber. These elements can entirely made of functional materials (as e.g. shape memory alloys) or, alternatively, they can be equipped with controllable devices, so-called structural fuses, which provide controlled response of the element. Depending on type of applied control, the changes of structural parameters occur only once (usually before impact) or they are controlled in real time during the impact process.
The systems of Adaptive Impact Absorption can be effectively used to increase the level of safety during the action of the impact loading. In particular, very promising results are obtained with the use of adaptive inflatable structures. However, the possibilities of their practical applications are limited due to the lack methods allowing for the efficient and fast control of the gas flow during impact.
The presented work focuses on the pneumatic adaptive impact absorbing system equipped with a novel, high performance valve, which utilizes bistable snap-through effect. Snap-through effects are mainly the subject of theoretical analysis and they do not find many practical engineering applications.

smart structures, high performance valves, adaptive pneumatic systems, adaptive impact absorption