Institute of Fundamental Technological Research

An alkali–silica reaction (ASR) is a chemical process that leads to the formation of an expansive gel, potentially causing durability issues in concrete structures. This article investigates the properties and behaviour of ASR products in mortar with the addition of low-purity calcined clay as an additional material. This study includes an evaluation of the expansion and microstructural characteristics of the mortar, as well as an analysis of the formation and behaviour of ASR products with different contents of calcined clay. Expansion tests of the mortar beam specimens were conducted according to ASTM C1567, and a detailed microscopic analysis of the reaction products was performed. Additionally, their mechanical properties were determined using nanoindentation. This study reveals that with an increasing calcined clay content, the amount of the crystalline form of the ASR gel decreases, while the nanohardness increases. The Young’s modulus of the amorphous ASR products ranged from 5 to 12 GPa, while the nanohardness ranged from 0.41 to 0.67 GPa. The obtained results contribute to a better understanding of how the incorporation of low-purity calcined clay influences the ASR in mortar, providing valuable insights into developing sustainable and durable building materials for the construction industry.

alkali–silica reaction, ASR products, calcined clay, mortar, expansion

Exposed aggregate concrete (EAC) pavement is a commonly employed technology in Europe for the construction of highways. The technical challenges associated with pavement construction include achieving both a comfortable ride and the desired skid resistance, while ensuring the long-term concrete durability. Maintaining uniformity of concrete mix, precise dosing of retarding agents, optimal selection of brushing time, and ensuring adequate curing conditions are identified as critical factors for achieving the designed ride performance. This study is focused on determining the appropriate time for the brushing operation, conducted to expose aggregate grains at the surface of the pavement. Laboratory tests were performed on concrete mixes designed to replicate job mixes for the upper layer of a two-layer concrete pavement. Measurements of the mass of evaporated water from the cement paste, isothermal calorimetry tests, and modified Vicat tests were employed to predict the appropriate brushing time. The texture depth was determined using a laser profiler as a function of brushing time. Compressive strength, the rate of chloride ion migration, and scaling resistance were determined through tests conducted on specimens cut from exposed aggregate slabs. Results revealed the suitability of the developed test method for determining the appropriate time for brushing EAC pavements.

cement setting, exposed aggregate concrete, macrotexture, pavement durability, surface retarder, texturing technology

Concrete used in nuclear applications faces significant durability challenges due to degradation from radiation, thermal stresses, and chemical reactions. These issues highlight the critical need for impermeable concrete shields to prevent radioactive leaks and protect against harmful radiation. This study examines how concrete composition affects gas permeability and gamma radiation shielding properties. Three coarse aggregates—amphibolite (reference), magnetite, and serpentine—and two cement types (ordinary and slag) were tested, with concrete densities ranging from 2309 to 3538 kg/m3. Gas permeability was measured using a Cembureau-type constant head permeameter, and gamma shielding was assessed through the linear attenuation coefficient (µ) and half-value layer (HVL) at 137Cs decay energies. The results revealed significant variations in gas permeability and gamma ray shielding based on aggregate and cement type, with observable relationships between gas permeability, HVL, and concrete density. The results obtained from the presented research will contribute to increasing the safety, durability and cost-effectiveness of concrete constructions and maintenance of nuclear facilities.

Heavyweight aggregate, Hydrogen-bearing aggregate, Shielding concrete, Gas permeability, Gamma ray attenuation, Microstructure, ITZ

Results of experimental investigation on the mitigation of alkali–silica reaction (ASR) by low-grade calcined clay are presented. Domestic clay with an Al2O3 content equal to 26% and SiO2—58% was used. The calcination temperatures were as follows: 650 °C, 750 °C, 850 °C and 950 °C, which were chosen much more widely than presented in previous studies. Pozzolanity of the raw and calcined clay was determined with the Fratini test. The performance of calcined clay to mitigate ASR was evaluated according to ASTM C1567 using reactive aggregates. A control mortar mixture was prepared with 100% Portland cement (Na2Oeq = 1.12%) as a binder with reactive aggregate, and test mixtures were made with 10% and 20% of calcined clay as a cement replacement. The microstructure of the specimens was observed on the polished sections using scanning electron microscope (SEM) operated in backscattered mode (BSE). The results of expansion of mortar bars with reactive aggregate showed that replacing cement with calcined clay reduced the expansion of the mortar bars. The greater the cement replacement, the better results in terms of ASR mitigation. However, the influence of the calcination temperature was not as clear. The opposite trend was found with the use of 10% or 20% calcined clay.

alkali–silica reaction (ASR), expansion, low grade calcined clay, mitigation, Fratini test, microscopic analysis

Despite ongoing efforts to prevent the damaging effects of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in concrete structures, this phenomenon still exists and causes significant degradation. This study aims to investigate the role of various deicing agents in provoking ASR by examining volume expansion, cracks, and microstructure of mortar and concrete containing aggregates identified as non-reactive by standard ASR test methods. To achieve this, the concrete specimens undergo simulated operating conditions testing to induce ASR expansion, with an external supply of alkali from chloride- and formate-based deicers. The findings suggest that the configuration and concentration of the deicing agent used, as well as the mineral composition of the aggregate that was previously identified as non-reactive, can significantly impact the expansion and damage caused by ASR. The results indicate that existing methods for testing aggregates for ASR may have limitations when formate-based agents are used.

Alkali-silica reaction, Concrete, Aggregate, Expansion, Deicing agents, Microscopy

A thorough petrographic evaluation of aggregates from igneous rocks in terms of their alkali–silica reaction (ASR) potential is crucial in ensuring the durability and long-term performance of concrete structures, especially those where access to additional alkalis is possible, such as from de-icing agents. The aim of the research was to assess the potential reactivity of aggregates from igneous rocks, as only such aggregates are used for concrete airport pavements in Poland. Petrographic analysis was conducted to identify the reactive minerals in the aggregate, and it was extended by quantitative image analysis. The strained, microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline quartz were found to be reactive components but significantly differed in content. It was found that aggregates from igneous rocks were characterized by different susceptibility to ASR and that methods to mitigate the occurrence of ASR should be considered to be used in airfield concrete. A relationship between the content of analyzed reactive minerals and the expansion of mortar bars in AMBT, as well as of the concrete prism in the CPT method, was revealed.

igneous rocks, granite aggregate, mineral composition, thin sections, digital image analysis, petrographic analysis, alkali–silica reaction, concrete durability

During the wintertime, concrete pavements experience harsh exposure conditions due to the presence of both the freezing–thawing and wetting–drying cycles. Airport concrete pavements are commonly de-iced using chloride-free organic salts such as potassium formate or potassium acetate. However, these materials contain alkali ions which can have harmful effects on both the cement matrix and the aggregate. Specifically, there is an increased risk of occurrence of the alkali–silica reaction (ASR). The goal of this research was to estimate the influence of potassium formate on the potential of causing alkali–silica reaction in aggregates with different categories of reactivity (R0, R1, R2). The accelerated mortar bar test and its modification (which involves replacing sodium hydroxide solution with a potassium formate solution) were used. Detailed SEM-EDS examinations were performed to confirm the presence of alkali–silica reaction and to analyze the influence of potassium formate on the microstructure of mortar.

alkali–silica reaction,potassium formate,de-icing agent,reactive aggregate

This article presents the results of an experimental investigation into the mitigation of the alkali–silica reaction (ASR) resulting from using low-grade clay calcined at 850 °C. The clay used in the experiment was domestic clay with an Al2O3 content equal to 26% and a SiO2 content of 58%. The performance of calcined clay in ASR mitigation was evaluated according to ASTM C1567 using reactive aggregates. The control mortar mixture consisted of 100% Portland cement (Na2Oeq = 1.12%) binder and reactive aggregate. The test mixtures used the same reactive aggregate and binders, in which part of the cement was replaced with either 10%, 20% or 30% calcined clay. The microstructure of specimens was examined on the polished sections using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) operated in the backscattered mode (BSE). The results of expansion obtained from the mortar bars made with the reactive aggregate showed that replacing cement by calcined clay reduced their expansion, with the level of expansion decreasing with the increase in the level of cement replacement.

calcined clay, alkali–silica reaction, expansion, mitigation, microstructure

For possible application of gamma radiation in processing of fresh concrete, like surface processing at precast plants or 3D printing, it is essential to evaluate effects of irradiation on the early hardening of cementitious binders. The influence of gamma irradiation with the dose rate of 4.6 kGy/h on the early strength, pore size distribution and qualitative phase composition of mortar was investigated. The range of investigation comprises the effects selected micro- and nano-additions to Portland cement mortar used to control the kinetic of setting and early hardening of cement. Results show that gamma irradiation of hardening mortar results in the early strength increase of about 56–100%, in reduction of capillary porosity and pore size refinement. The gamma-irradiation sensitivity of early strength of cement mortar is equivalent to increased temperature wet curing. A correlation of heat evolution characteristics of hardening mortar and the temperature-equivalent of gamma irradiation is discussed.

boron minerals, early hardening, gamma irradiation, pore size distribution, strength, temperature equivalent

Prediction of carbonation progress in concrete exposed to ionizing radiation is important for the durability assessment of nuclear power plants, eventually needed for operational license extension. The objective of this work is to reveal the influence of gamma irradiation on the carbonation development and resulting microstructural features of cement mortar. The composition of mortar was varied by using mineral additions. Canned specimens at elevated CO2 concentration environment were exposed to gamma irradiation up to the absorbed dose of 1.6 MGy in the vicinity of spent nuclear fuel rods in pool of research reactor. Micromechanical properties of carbonation reaction products were determined using nanoindentation tests. The carbonation depth was found to increase with increasing absorbed γ dose. The size of calcite crystals was about three times greater in irradiated specimens. Gamma irradiation improved the micromechanical properties of carbonation products. Effects of mineral additives on the characteristics of irradiated mortar are discussed.

calcite, carbonation, cement mortar, gamma irradiation, microstructure, mineral additions, nanoindentation

Diagnostic tests were carried out on specimens drilled from a section of jointed, unreinforced highway pavement after 15 years of service. The section of highway was exposed to heavy road traffic, environmental actions of wet-freeze climate zone and associated winter maintenance including application of deicing salt. Premature pavement damage was manifested by visible cracking, mostly along transverse joints and in slab corners. Tests performed on core specimens included petrographic analysis of concrete and its components, using optical and scanning electron microscopy, also evaluation of elastic and transport properties, expansion potential, cracks and air void system. Numerous cracks in the grains of coarse quartzite aggregate were found. Reactive forms of quartz in quartzite aggregate - microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline quartz - were abundant. The gel-like products in cracks in quartzite grains and in surrounding cement paste were identified as alkali-silica reaction products. Expansion of specimens exposed to an alkali-silica reaction-promoting environment indicated the potential for further development of such reaction. Substantial cracking and reduction of modulus of elasticity was correlated with the presence of reactive quartz in quartzite aggregate. The role of additional destructive factors, such as the impact of heavy vehicles traffic and freeze-thaw aggression was indicated by greater cracks in the slow traffic lane compared than in the emergency lane, associated with local marginal air entrainment of concrete.

alkali-silica reaction, concrete, cracking, durability, highway pavement

After 15 years of exploitation, numerous instances of damage to the concrete pavement motorway located in northern Germany were observed. Detailed macro and microscopic analysis and determination of mechanical properties were performed on the collected cores. It was found that cracks in the coarse and fine aggregate resulted from advanced alkali-silica reaction. No impact of de-icing agents on the destruction of the concrete pavement was found, while attention was paid to the potential intensification of concrete degradation resulting from the increase in traffic on motorways. The results obtained are a detailed supplement to the German research, as this region (Rostock) has not been analysed before.

Alkali-silica reaction, Concrete, Aggregate, Petrographic analysis, Microstructure

Premature damage to the concrete pavement of a trunk road section after 15 years of its service life was noticed. The damage manifested itself in cracking along transverse joints and in the corners of slabs. Diagnostic investigations, covering a petrographic analysis of concrete and mineral aggregates by means of optical and scanning microscopy, an evaluation of the elastic properties, the degree of cracking and air-void parameters and an identification of the alkali-silica reaction products, were carried out on core samples. Multiple cracks in coarse quartzite aggregate particles and in cement matrix were found. A significant presence of microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline quartz in quartzite particles was detected. Typical alkali-silica reaction products were unambiguously identified. The considerable cracking and the substantial decrease in the modulus of elasticity were correlated with the presence of reactive quartz in the quartzite aggregate and the alkali-silica reaction was found to be the main cause of the damage. Additional damaging factors, such as heavy traffic loads and frost aggression, are discussed.

concrete, road pavement, pavement evaluation, aggregate, quartzite, alkali-silica reaction, cracks, service life

Sand used as fine aggregate in concrete may, under unfavorable environmental conditions, cause alkali-silica reaction and the consequent deterioration of durability and functional properties of concrete. The aim of this work is to compare alkali-silica reactivity of 18 natural sands of various origin. The potential reactivity of sands was tested according to the procedures PB/1/18 and PB/3/18 established in the Technical Guidelines issued by the General Directorate for National Roads and Motorways. Mineral composition of aggregate was analyzed in order to identify reactive minerals. Mortar bar expansion tests and microscopic analyses of the products of alkali-silica reaction were performed. The research indicated that 6 (33%) out of 18 tested aggregates should be classified as “moderately reactive” and 12 (67%) aggregates should be classified as “non-reactive”. It was demonstrated that the origin of sand affects its susceptibility to alkali-silica reaction.

alkali-silica gel, expansion, fine aggregate, reactive minerals, sand

Use of de-icing agents is necessary in winter to maintain appropriate quality of road and airport surfaces. Formate or acetate de-icing agents are safer for aircraft and the environment than the commonly used sodium chloride, but may cause an alkali-silica reaction in concrete. The study investigated the influence of sodium formate and potassium formate on the occurrence of ASR (alkali-silica reaction) in mortars with granite aggregate. Accelerated mortar-bar tests at 80°C using
various de-icing agents were performed and detailed studies of the SEM-EDS microstructure were carried out.

granite aggregate, alkali-silica reaction ASR, sodium formate, potassium formate, alkali-silica gel, microstructure

The design of concrete for radiation shielding structures is principally based on the selection of materials of adequate elemental composition and mix proportioning to achieve the long-term durability in nuclear environment. Concrete elements may become radioactive through exposure to neutron radiation from the nuclear reactor. A selection of constituent materials of greatly reduced content of long-lived residual radioisotopes would reduce the volume of low-level waste during plant decommissioning. The objective of this investigation is an assessment of trace elements with a large activation cross section in concrete constituents and simultaneous evaluation of susceptibility of concrete to detrimental alkali-silica reaction. Two isotopes 60Co and 152Eu were chosen as the dominant long-lived residual radioisotopes and evaluated using neutron activation analysis. The influence of selected mineral aggregates on the expansion due to alkali-silica reaction was tested. The content of 60Co and 152Eu activated by neutron radiation in fine and coarse aggregates, as well as in four types of Portland cement, is presented and discussed in respect to the chemical composition and rock origin. Conflicting results were obtained for quartzite coarse aggregate and siliceous river sand that, despite a low content, 60Co and 152Eu exhibited a high susceptibility to alkali-silica reaction in Portland cement concrete. The obtained results facilitate a multicriteria selection of constituents for radiation-shielding concrete.

alkali-silica reaction, concrete durability, low-level radioactive waste, neutron activation analysis, radiation shielding concrete, trace elements

The alkali-silica reactivity of granites may significantly affect the durability of road and airfield concrete pavements. The aim of the study was to evaluate the reactivity of granites commonly used as an aggregate in concrete pavements, with particular emphasis on microscopic methods. The research was focused on petrographic diagnosis of reactive minerals in granites, their quantitative analysis and comparison of the obtained results with standard measurements. The strained quartz was recognized as a reactive component and the linear relationship between its content and specimens expansion was found.

alkali-silica reaction, concrete, durability, granite, image analysis, microscopy, pavements, slow-reacting aggregates, expansion

The assessment of the aggregate suitability for concrete pavements applies mainly to coarse aggregate. However, even fine aggregate can significantly affect the long-term durability of concrete when it is susceptible to alkali-silica reaction (ASR). The sustainable use of available fine aggregates for the production of concrete, while reducing the effects of ASR, requires special preventive measures. The paper proposed different procedures to determine the chemical composition of aggregate and the related ASR risk. The study covers various properties of natural fine aggregates from glacial deposits. The experiments included determination of chemical composition by prompt gamma activation analysis (PGAA), quantitative mineralogical characterisation on thin sections using digital image procedure (DIP) and expansion measurements in mortar bar test (MBT). The strong correlation of sand origin and its susceptibility to ASR was observed. Content of micro- and cryptocrystalline quartz in siliceous sand was found to have a crucial effect on its performance in AMBT.

fine aggregate, alkali-silica reaction, mineral composition, prompt gamma activation analysis, digital image procedure, glacial deposit

The purpose of introducing air into the concrete mix is to increase the freeze-thaw and scaling resistance of hardened concrete. The utility of the sequential pressure method (Super Air Meter - SAM) for assessment of the air entrainment quality was verified by comparing the results obtained with this method with the results of the air-void analysis of hardened concrete. The results of the tests carried out on mixes designed and produced at a laboratory and the mixes produced on an industrial scale during expressway construction are considered. Furthermore, the relationships between the SAM number and the micro air-void content A300 in hardened concrete and the freeze-thaw and de-icing salt resistance are analysed as part of this research. A clear co-relation between the SAM number, a parameter that characterises the air-entrainment of the concrete mix, and the microvoid content has been demonstrated.
Napowietrzenie mieszanki betonowej stosuje się w celu podwyższenia mrozoodporności betonu i jego odporności na złuszczenia powierzchniowe. Przeprowadzono badania możliwości charakteryzowania jakości napowietrzenia mieszanki betonowej za pomocą pomiarów metodą sekwencyjno-ciśnieniową, oceniając zgodność jej wyników z wynikami pomiaru charakterystyki porów w betonie stwardniałym. Przedstawiono wyniki badań mieszanek zaprojektowanych i wykonanych w laboratorium, jak i mieszanek wykonanych przemysłowo na budowie drogi ekspresowej. Analizowano relację tzw. liczby SAM mieszanki betonowej w odniesieniu do zawartości mikroporów A300 w stwardniałym betonie oraz odporności na cykliczne działanie mrozu w obecności soli odladzających. Wykazano wyraźną korelację między parametrem charakteryzującym napowietrzenie mieszanki betonowej (liczba SAM) a zawartością mikroporów w betonie stwardniałym.

air-entrainment, air-void parameters, concrete, freeze-thaw resistance, microvoid content, sequential pressure method, surface scaling / beton, charakterystyka porów, metoda sekwencyjno-cioenieniowa, mrozoodporność, napowietrzenie, zawartość mikroporów, złuszczenia powierzchniowe

The suitability of the sequential air pressure method (SAM) to evaluate the quality of air entrainment in concrete mix to support prediction of durability of hardened concrete was studied. The experiments included both laboratory-produced mixes and on-site trials on mixes delivered for highway pavement construction. The fresh air content and the air void distribution was tested using the SAM apparatus. The air content and the air void characteristics in hardened concrete was tested using the microscopic analysis on polished sections. Standard fresh mix properties were also tested and the compressive strength and salt-scaling resistance of concrete was determined. Effects of type and proportion of admixtures, type of crushed aggregate, timing of SAM measurements and the method of mix consolidation were analyzed. The relationship between the SAM number and the air void characteristics in hardened concrete was critically evaluated. The relationship between SAM number and the content of microvoids (A300) is found for the laboratory mixes and confirmed with few field test results. The criterion of SAM number ≤ 0.4 is proposed for the target microvoids content A300 ≥ 1.5% and the enhanced salt scaling resistance of concrete.

air entrainment, air void distribution, concrete durability, fresh concrete, frost-salt scaling, microvoids content, mix design, sequential pressure method, spacing factor, test methods

The paper presents the results of investigations into the reactivity of domestic aggregates produced from selected sedimentary rocks, carried out using the new testing methods, consistent with the RILEM and ASTM methods, implemented by GDDKiA (Polish General Directorate for National Roads and Motorways) documents. The range of the investigations covered coarse crushed aggregates produced from limestone, dolomite, sandstone and greywacke rocks, potentially suitable for making strong and durable concrete. No reactive forms of quartz were found in the mineralogical composition of the limestone aggregates and the dolomite aggregates. Micro- and cryptocrystalline quartz occurred in the particles of the greywacke aggregates and the sandstone aggregates. On the basis of the expansion of mortar and concrete specimens the aggregates produced from the sedimentary rocks were classified into the reactivity categories: R0, R1 and R2. A sodium-potassium-calcium silicate gel, whose composition (consistent with that reported in the literature) was characteristic of the alkali-silica reaction products, was found. The investigations resulted in a consistent assessment of the reactivity of the aggregates.
W pracy przedstawiono wyniki badań reaktywności krajowych kruszyw z wybranych, litych skał osadowych przy wykorzystaniu nowych metod badawczych wdrożonych w dokumentach technicznych Generalnej Dyrekcji Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad (GDDKiA), zgodnych z metodami RILEM i ASTM. Zakres badań obejmował kruszywa grube łamane o potencjalnej przydatności do wykonania wytrzymałego i trwałego betonu, wyprodukowane ze skał wapienia, dolomitu, piaskowca i szarogłazu. W składzie mineralnym kruszyw z wapieni i dolomitu nie stwierdzono obecności reaktywnych form kwarcu; w ziarnach kruszywa z szarogłazów i piaskowca występował kwarc mikro- i kryptokrystaliczny. Na podstawie wydłużenia próbek określono następujące kategorie reaktywności wybranych krajowych kruszyw ze skał osadowych: R0, R1 i R2. Zaobserwowano występowanie żelu krzemianu sodowo-potasowo-wapniowego o składzie charakterystycznym dla produktów reakcji alkalia-kruszywo, zgodnym z danymi literaturowymi. Uzyskano spójną ocenę reaktywności kruszyw.

alkali-aggregate reaction, cement, concrete, dolomite aggregate, expansion, greywacke, limestone, quartz, reactive minerals, sandstone / beton, cement, kruszywo dolomitowe, kruszywo wapienne, kwarc, minerały reaktywne, piaskowiec, reakcja alkalia-kruszywo, szarogłaz, wydłużenie

The paper presents investigations into the reactivity of aggregates from igneous rock, carried out in accordance with the procedures contained in the GDDKiA General Technical Specification "Concrete pavements". The aim of the investigations was evaluation of the suitability of the aggregates for road structures and pavements built using cement based concrete technology. Aggregates produced from extrusive rocks (basalt, melaphyre and porphyry) and from intrusive rocks (granite and gabbro) were analysed. The mineral composition of the aggregates was evaluated with regard to their reactive SiO2 content. Expansion tests on mortar bar and concrete prism specimens with analysed aggregates and a microscopic analysis of the alkali-aggregate reaction products were carried out. A considerable amount of reactive minerals: chalcedony, tridymite and microcrystalline quartz and volcanic glass were found in the grains of the porphyry and melaphyre aggregates. On the basis of the conducted investigations the two aggregates made of igneous rocks (melaphyre and porphyry) were classified into category R1 (moderately reactive). The basalt aggregate, the granite aggregate and the gabbro aggregate were assigned to category R0 (non-reactive).
W artykule przedstawiono badania reaktywności kruszyw ze skał magmowych przeprowadzone zgodnie z procedurami ujętymi w instrukcjach GDDKiA OST "Nawierzchnie betonowe" w celu oceny ich przydatności do stosowania w technologii betonu cementowego na drogowe konstrukcje inżynierskie i nawierzchnie. Analizie poddano kruszywa ze skał wylewnych: bazalt, melafir i porfir oraz ze skał głębinowych: granit i gabro. Przeprowadzono ocenę składu mineralnego kruszyw z uwagi na zawartość reaktywnych minerałów krzemionkowych. Przeprowadzono badania wydłużenia próbek zapraw i betonów z kruszywami oraz analizę mikroskopową produktów reakcji alkalia-kruszywo. Stwierdzono występowanie znacznej ilości reaktywnych minerałów w ziarnach kruszywa z porfiru i melafiru: chalcedonu i trydymitu oraz kwarcu mikrokrystalicznego i szkliwa wulkanicznego. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań dwa kruszywa ze skał magmowych (melafir oraz porfir) zaklasyfikowano do kategorii R1 - umiarkowanie reaktywne. Kruszywo bazaltowe, granit oraz gabro przypisano kategorii R0 - niereaktywne.

aggregate, alkali reactivity, alkali silica gel, cristobalite, igneous rocks, microcrystalline quartz, reactive minerals / alkaliczny żel krzemionkowy, kruszywo, krystobalit, mikrokrystaliczny kwarc, minerały reaktywne, reaktywność alkaliczna, skały wulkaniczne

Enhanced neutron radiation shielding capacity of protective structures can be achieved using cement-based composites with boron-containing aggregates. Experimental tests were performed to evaluate the effect of boron aggregates (colemanite, ulexite, borax, boron carbide) and nanosilica on the setting time and hydration heat of cement in mortars using isothermal calorimetry. Boron leaching test from mineral aggregates were performed in water and saturated Ca(OH)2 solution. Cement setting retardation effects were found qualitatively correlated with boron leaching from mineral aggregates. A linear dependence of compressive strength of borated mortars and heat released after 72 h of cement hydration was found. A maximum content of boron compounds in mortar, allowing for a systematical control of setting time, was evaluated

Boron minerals, Cement setting, Colemanite, Early strength, Heat of hydration, Isothermal calorimetry, Leaching, Nanosilica, Neutron shielding, Retardation, Ulexite

W referacie przedstawiono wyniki badań betonu poddanego cyklicznym oddziaływaniom zmiennej temperatury i wilgotności wraz z zewnętrznym oddziaływaniem soli odladzającej. Warunki badania odzwierciedlają oddziaływania środowiskowe na beton w nawierzchniach dróg ekspresowych i elementach drogowych obiektów inżynierskich, określone kategorią środowiska E3. Próbki wykonano według receptur laboratoryjnych oraz pobrano na placu budowy kilku odcinków nawierzchni dróg ekspresowych w Polsce. Przeprowadzono pomiary ekspansji próbek betonu, zmiany masy i zmiany rezonansowego modułu sprężystości w funkcji czasu. W przypadku betonu nawierzchniowego pobranego na budowie, zawierającego kruszywa grube i drobne spełniające kryteria niereaktywności potwierdzono stabilność objętościową i stałość właściwości sprężystych. Wyniki badań próbek laboratoryjnych ujawniły zróżnicowaną podatność betonu na uszkodzenia wskutek ASR w warunkach zewnętrznego oddziaływania soli odladzającej, związaną z obecnością minerałów reaktywnych w kruszywach. Przeprowadzone międzylaboratoryjne badania porównawcze pod auspicjami BASt wykazały biegłość laboratorium.

The paper presents results of the microstructural analysis of the expressway pavements concrete exhibiting signs of potential alkali-silica reaction (ASR). The analysis was performed on cores drilled from pavements from the northern part of Germany. Specimens were selected from regions of the pavements representing the highest degree of distress. The results obtained during microstructural characterization performed in the laboratory are presented and discussed. The microstructure of concretes was investigated using microscopy in both transmitted and reflected light as well as in scanning electron microscope (SEM) operated in the backscattered (BSE). The chemical compositions of the phases of interest were determined using the Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis (EDS). The thin sections were analyzed using petrographic microscope (under plane, crosspolarized light and with gypsum plate). The petrographic analysis of aggregates was conducted to determine the presence of potentially reactive minerals. During the microstructural analysis particular emphasis was placed on establishing exactly the type of the reaction and the distribution and the composition of the resulting gel. In addition, the Damage Rating Index method has been used to ascertain the degree of concrete pavement damage caused by ASR. During the microstructural analysis particular emphasis was placed on establishing exactly the type of the reaction and the distribution and the composition of the resulting gel. The results of the analysis revealed the presence of the deleterious reactions in pavements. Concrete showed evidence of the ASR. The reactive components were identified as schist and sandstone in the coarse aggregate and reactive siliceous fine aggregate. The resulting gel was predominantly of Si-Ca-K-Na composition.

aggregate, alkali-silica reaction (ASR), gel, petrographic analysis, reactive minerals, SEM analysis

Results of experimental investigations on the reactivity of crushed aggregates produced from sedimentary and igneous rocks are presented. Applied test methods, consistent with RILEM and ASTM standards are implemented in technical specifications of Polish national highway administration. The range of the investigations covered coarse aggregates produced from crushed limestone, dolomite, sandstone and greywacke rocks, as well as from basalt, melaphyre, porphyry, granite and gabbro. The aggregates were selected on the basis of their mechanical and physical properties to be adequate for making durable concrete for highway applications. The mineral composition of the aggregates was evaluated with regard to their reactive SiO2 content. A considerable amount of reactive minerals: chalcedony, tridymite and microcrystalline quartz were found in the grains of the porphyry and melaphyre aggregates. No reactive forms of quartz were found to be present in the mineralogical composition of the limestone aggregates and the dolomite aggregates. Micro- and cryptocrystalline quartz occurred in the particles of the greywacke aggregates and the sandstone aggregates. On the basis of the expansion of mortar and concrete of specimens, the coarse aggregates produced from crushed rocks were classified into three reactivity categories. A sodium-potassium-calcium silicate gel was found and its composition was consistent with that reported in the literature as characteristic of the alkali-aggregate reaction products. The tests revealed consistent assessment of the reactivity of the aggregates.

alkali silica gel, expansion tests, microcrystalline quartz, petrographic analysis, technical specifications

Alkali silica reaction (ASR) is a harmful phenomenon occurring as a result of chemical interactions between sodium and potassium hydroxides in the pore solution and reactive minerals contained in the aggregate. Reactive minerals like microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline or strained quartz dissolve in the alkaline solution and form an expansive gel product. Proper selection of concrete constituents is necessary to ensure the durability of concrete structures. The proper recognition of the aggregate mineralogical composition is a very important element in the process of selection of concrete components due to the risk of ASR occurrence. This paper presents the results of detailed microscopic analysis of alkali-silica reactivity of domestic fine aggregates of various origins. Six siliceous sands from different locations in Poland and one limestone sand were tested. Detailed petrographic analysis was performed on thin sections. In all siliceous sands micro- and cryptocrystalline quartz was recognized as a reactive mineral. Digital image analysis was performed for quantitative assessment of the potential of reactivity of sands. It revealed, that siliceous river sands were the most susceptible to an alkali-silica reaction, which was confirmed by mortar bar expansion test performed according to the standard test method.

Prolonged durability of concrete structures is closely related to the minimization of the transport of liquids in cement matrix. Capillary suction is a dominant mechanism of liquid transport, especially in moderate climate, where cyclic wetting-drying and freeze-thawing cycles occur. Air-entraining of concrete is the efficient way to prevent deterioration impact from environment. However, the influence of air voids distribution on the capillary suction is not well known. The purpose of the research was to assess the water absorption properties of the air entrained concrete. The concrete mixes with the air content from 1% to 16% and similar proportion of micropores to large air voids (A300/A) were prepared. The water absorption tests were performed using ASTM C1585 procedure. The following parameters were determined: Si – initial rate of water absorption, Ss – secondary rate of water absorption, tn – time of nick point, In - water absorption for tn, I60 – initial 60 seconds of water absorption. The results were compared with the air content in concrete. Additionally the compressive strength, porosity accessible to water and concrete resistivity were measured. The linear relationships between initial and secondary rate of water absorption and the air content in concrete were found. A significant changes of rate of water absorption in concrete when the air content change more than 6% were observed.

water absorption, air-entrained concrete, nick point, concrete resistivity, porosity accessible to water

In the present study the potential of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in fine fraction of aggregate was analyzed. The investigation was focused on mineral composition of siliceous sand and its influence on ASR. Three siliceous sands from different origin and localization in Poland were tested. Petrographic analysis on thin sections was conducted. The automatic image analysis was used to estimate the content of reactive minerals (micro- and crypto-crystalline quartz). The XRD measurements were performed. Alkali-silica reactivity of fine aggregate was tested by mortar-bar test according to ASTM C1260 Standard. Petrographic analysis showed that all tested siliceous sands contained reactive form of quartz, micro- and cryptocrystalline. Mortar-bar tests according to ASTM C1260 indicated that one from the selected sands exceeded expansion over the limit and was considered as reactive. The content of reactive minerals in sands estimated by automatic image analysis corresponded to ASTM C1260 results. The higher content of reactive form of quartz in siliceous sand, the larger expansion of mortar-bar test.

Siliceous sand, Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR), digital image analysis, micro- and cryptocrystalline quartz, expansion

The risk of occurrence of deleterious alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in concrete should be properly minimized in major highway pavements and bridges. Real-life experiences show that even in concrete made with aggregates potentially not susceptible to ASR, it may occur under unfavourable conditions of external alkali supply at wet conditions and heavy traffic load. An experimental investigation was performed to study the susceptibility of selected Polish mineral aggregates to ASR at external alkali supply. The test method „60°C concrete test with external alkali supply” covered by draft procedure RILEM AAR-12 was implemented at IPPT PAN laboratory. Air entrained concrete specimens were exposed to cyclic temperature changes and wet-dry exposure as well as NaCl solution exposure. Several combinations of coarse crushed aggregate and fine natural aggregate were tested in concrete designed as for heavy duty highway pavement. SEM evaluation of microstructure of concrete with glacial deposit aggregate revealed visible alkali-silica gel. The effects of fine aggregate on the expansion of concrete were also revealed.

air entrained concrete, alkali-silica reaction, cyclic exposure, external alkali, highway pavement

Multicomponent cement-based composites are known as versatile structural materials for enhanced radiation shielding. The use of selected elements, like boron, cadmium, or rare earth elements, provides an increased neutron shielding capacity. Because of profusion, reasonable costs and large cross-section for neutron capture, boron containing minerals are suggested as aggregates for radiation shielding concrete. Despite many advantages, boron additives may act as cement setting retarders. Uncontrolled setting and hardening is not acceptable in radiation shielding concrete technology. In this work we present results from isothermal calorimetry measurements on cement mortars with boron-containing aggregates. Four types of boron aggregates were used in the studies: colemanite, ulexite, borax and boron carbide. Based on calorimetric curves, the beginning of setting time was determined. Additionally early mortar strength was investigated and linear relationship between the heat generated in the isothermal calorimeter and the early compressive strength has been observed. The use of isothermal calorimetry allowed us to estimate the limits for the content of boron compounds to be used cement mortar.

Salt solutions are used to ensure safe driving conditions during winter. NaCl deicer is the most often used brine in Polish climatic zone. The chemical effects of this type of chloride-based deicer in wetting and drying (WD) and temperature cycles on concrete need to be better understood. This research was focus to study the microstructure of air-entrained pavement concrete after combined chemical (10% of NaCl) and physical (WD and 60°C) exposure conditions. The adopted WD and temperature regime was designed to verify the hypothesis that regularly alternating wetting and drying cycles with external alkali supply from deicer salt will provoke the Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR). The aggregates varied their origin and mineralogical composition. The microscopic examination was carried out on concrete specimens using SEM with EDX. The microscopic analysis has shown that main reason for concrete deterioration during cyclic chemical and physical exposure conditions was both physical influence - WD cycles and the chemical influence – ASR (primarily, the fine aggregate which lead to form of alkali-silica gel). The expansive gel was shown to be capable of destroying the test specimens. Also differences in mineralogical composition of coarse aggregates influenced on the concrete prism expansion due to ASR.

Penetration of external alkalis from deicing salts into concrete pavement can promote deleterious alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and therefore reduce its long-term performance. In severe exposure conditions (wet and heavy traffic load) the susceptibility of aggregates to ASR may be aggravated. To study this phenomenon on concrete specimens the combined cyclic exposure method was developed at VDZ Düsseldorf. Such a cyclic wet-dry-external alkali exposure was used on air entrained concrete specimens to investigate its influence on the microstructure and the permeability of concrete. Air voids characteristics, mercury intrusion porosimetry, porosity accessible to water and water absorption of concrete was tested. Concrete microstructure was observed in scanning electron microscope to reveal the specific features. The applied cyclic wetdry-external alkali exposure induced a marked decrease of total porosity of concrete and the appearance of ASR gel in cement matrix. An increase of the rate of water absorption of concrete was also found.

alkali-silica reaction, VDZ test, microstructure, permeability, water absorption

Przedmiotem referatu jest przydatność zmodyfikowanej metody ciśnieniowej do wyznaczenia charakterystyki porów w napowietrzonej mieszance betonowej w warunkach polowych na miejscu budowy nawierzchni drogowej. Metoda polegająca na stopniowym zwiększaniu ciśnienia na mieszankę, w określonej sekwencji, pozwala wyznaczyć parametr zwany liczbą SAM. Zgodnie z oczekiwaniem wynalazców metody powinna być skorelowana ze wskaźnikiem rozmieszczenia porów w betonie. Przeprowadzone badania doświadczalne obejmowały rozpoznanie w warunkach laboratoryjnych powtarzalności metody oraz pomiary napowietrzenia mieszanki na dolną i górną warstwę betonu w nawierzchni odcinków dróg ekspresowych. Na próbkach stwardniałego betonu wyznaczono wskaźnik rozmieszczenia porów zgodnie z PN-EN 480-11 i przeanalizowano zgodność charakterystyki napowietrzenia betonu stwardniałego z charakterystyką napowietrzenia mieszanki na podstawie liczby SAM. Wykonanie pomiarów w warunkach budowy dwuwarstwowej nawierzchni drogi ekspresowej nie nastręczało kłopotów technicznych. Jednakże w wielu przypadkach stwierdzono niewystarczającą korelację charakterystyki porów w mieszance i w betonie stwardniałym. Przeanalizowano czynniki wpływające na zaobserwowane niezgodności.

Exposed aggregate concrete (EAC) pavement technology is used in Poland for construction of major highways and expressways. When properly executed, it is an efficient technique to provide desired friction for skid resistance without compromising the noise limitations. Concrete mix uniformity, proper dosing of retarding agent and optimal time to brush with a mechanical broom are supposed to have a major impact on the properties of the upper pavement layer. An experimental investigation was performed on exposed aggregate concrete specimens manufactured in the laboratory in a way to simulate the industrial production of two-layer concrete slab with exposed aggregate. The texture depth was determined using a laser profiler. The compressive strength of concrete, the water absorption rate, and permeability of chloride ions through concrete were also determined. The freeze-thaw resistance and surface scaling resistance were tested and analyzed with respect to air void characteristics. Results revealed an increase in surface scaling for EAC slabs with higher w/c ratio and slabs simulating local bleeding. The most efficient method to determine indirectly the durability of EAC slabs was the set of permeability tests comprised of measurements of chloride migration and rate of water absorption. The change of macrotexture depth with increase of w/c ratio and retarding admixture type was found.

highway pavement, exposed aggregate concrete, surface retarder, durability, concrete preparation parameter, water absorption, chloride migration, surface scaling, macrotexture

Crushed granite aggregates due to good physical and mechanical properties are widely accepted for production of durable concrete. This kind of aggregates are considered as not alkali-silica reactive (ASR). However, all of them contain silica. In some of them SiO2 occurs in a strained form or the crystals are small enough to be treated as microcrystalline, so they can be prone to ASR. Various granite aggregates taken from largest exploited Polish quarries were tested. Petrographic analysis on thin sections and accelerated mortar-bar test were carried out to assess potential of the alkali-silica reactivity. The petrographic analysis revealed differences in mineral composition of the tested granites. The strained quartz and microcrystalline quartz were the main potentially deleterious mineral in analyzed granite aggregates. Also the myrmekites were particularly visible in the granitic rocks. The results of the mortar-bar tests confirmed such predictions. The mortar beams showed expansion more than 0.1% after 28 days of exposition in 1M NaOH and 80°C. The bars made with RILEM cement showed fast and large elongation. In all cases the increase in mortar beam elongation was linear. The SEM-EDS analysis confirmed the presence of the ASR gel both, in the aggregate and in the matrix.